Medicinal Plants of Bhutan, Herbs Used in Sowa.rigpa Traditional Medicine

3 Major "Types" of Illness in Bhutanese/Tibetan Medicine

Rlung (wind)-- this is caused at base by ignorance/lack of enlightened wisdom combined with too much desire/attachment (to people, things, friends, lovers etc). Most mental illness, especially depression and anxiety, is attributed to rlung imbalance.

Behaviors that cause rlung illness: starvation or fasting for a long period, intake of very little food or missing meals, excessive sexual intercourse, inadequate sleep, excessive physical exercise and conversation/vocal activity on an empty stomach, excessive blood loss, excessive vomiting and diarrhea, exposure to cold or windy conditions or cold breezes, crying to the point of exhaustion, extreme grief, mental tension, or depression, excessive verbal activity, intake of recreational drugs, frequent travelling especially by plane, fast sports like running and skiing, driving vehicles fast, prolonged hours working with a computer, frequent exposure to loud music or high decibel noise, prolonged malnutrition, inhalation of "cooling (according to Chinese tradition)" smells like camphor, withholding natural urges like defecation, etc., and excessive effort during defecation or urination, too much thinking, strong attachment to things or people.

Diet that causes rlung illness: coffee and strong tea, excessive consumption of mutton and pork, excessive consumption of "light and coarse", or "bitter and astringent" (according to the Chinese classification of taste) foods, malnutrition, game meat, millet, very fresh butter, unripe fruits and vegetables, sugar, cold foods and drinks, tomatoes and nightshade family plants, excessive intake of water, junk and microwaved foods.

Seasonal aggravations:

·      Eating "hot, bitter, astringent" (according to the Chinese classification of taste) foods in the summer.

·      Early dawn and evening

·      After being 70 years old

·      Late afternoon- about 4 PM

·      Early morning- about 4 AM

·      After completing digestion

·      After eating "light, coarse, very cold" (according to Chinese classification of tastes), or too little food.

·      In cold weather, after a cold bath

·      After having sex

·      When physically, mentally exhausted, during anxious moments, when grieving, or when worrying, after being frightened, or during intense moments of joy

·      When losing weight

·      After an injury

·      During the menstruation cycle

·      During periods of insomnia

Symptoms of rLung:

1) too much rlung symptoms: thin and emaciated, complexion turns dark, prefers warm conditions, shivering or tremors, abdominal distension, constipation, overly talkative, vertigo, dizziness, or giddiness, loss of strength, insomnia or lack of sleep, impairment of sense organs, ringing sound in the ears and tinitis, frequent stretching, general sensation of coldness, frequent sighing, dehydration, agitated movements, cracking of joint, numbness, contractions, stiffness, depression, fainting and collapse, spasms, excessive thirstiness, striking and biting pain, excitability, in some cases becomes quarrelsome, roughness of skin, loss of mental and physical coordination, confusion, paralysis, premature ageing, astringent tastes in the mouth, most mental illness (depression, anxiety, etc.) is thought to be caused by rlung imbalance.

2) Not enough rlung symptoms: lack of energy, loss of enthusiasm, trouble with speech, physical discomfort, foggy memory, increase in bad-kan symptoms, sluggishness and lethargy, confusion in perception, increase in bad-kan and the production of toxins, weariness of the limbs, insufficient blood circulation, sensation of heaviness in body and mind.

3) Severe diseased/disturbed state of rlung causes: empty and floating pulse beat, clear urine, restlessness, frequent and protracted sighing, capricious, unfocused, and hallucinating mind, dizziness of head as if drunk, ringing and buzzing sound in the ears, dry, reddish and coarse tongue, astringent taste in the mouth, shifting pains, feeling cold, trembling, intensity of pain increases after moving, fatigue and lethargy, stiff limbs, losing weight in limbs, feeling of muscle tissues being separated from body, feeling of bones breaking, pulling and bulging sensation of organs especially the eyes, hair stands on end and shivering/chilling of body, insomnia, yawning and trembling, frequent stretching, mental irritation, feeling of hip/waist/joints being bitten, shooting pain in occipital area, acute pain in chest, jaw and cheek bones, retching, discharge of soft bubbling mucus at dawn, distention and rumbling of abdomen, pain during evening, dawn, after digestion.

mKhris-pa (fire or bile)- this is caused at base by ignorance/lack of enlightened wisdom combined with too much anger/hatred.

Behaviors that cause mkhris-pa illness: excessive anger, strong ego, lifting heay weight, getting into fights, strenuous physical work, hitting weapons on the vital points, too much exposure to the sun, habitually drinking too much alcohol, accidents, sitting near a fire for long periods, competitive social and business practice, smoking habits, over emphasis on personal achievements and success, fighting/wrestling/racing/overexertion/digging/lifting heavy loads, strenuous activity after taking a nap in the heat of the day, being trapped in a building under collapse from an earthquake, falling from a cliff, falling from a horse, being beaten by a stick or stone, strong anger in the mind

Diet that causes mkhris-pa illness: excessive intake of hot, sour, and sharp foods (according to the Chinese system of classification of taste), spices/too much spicy food, fresh mutton or raw sheep meat, alcohol, buckwheat, brown molasses, eggs, peanut butter, onions, excessive salt intake, excessive intake of pungent or "strong" tasting foods, overuse of meat, butter, wine, etc.

Aggravations: between 17-69 years of age, around midnight, at noon, during digestion, after consumption of spicy food, after eating food that is "hot, sour or salty" (according to the Chinese classification of taste), during fasts, when hunger and thirst are ignored, during exposure to sunlight and strong heat, during hot weather, while feeling emotions of anger or hatred, during intense intellectual activities.

Symptoms:

1) too much mKhris-pa: yellowish stool, yellowish urine, yellowish skin, yellowing of the eyes (sclera), excessive hunger and thirst, increase of body temperature, insomnia, loose bowel motions/diarrhea, strong stool odor, intense body odour, a craving for something cold, a burning sensation of skin/hands/eyes, tendency to sweat profusely, pungent and sour taste in mouth (according to the Chinese system of classification of taste), hypersensitivity, allergies, (eczema a group of diseases causing inflammation of the skin characterized by itchiness, red skin and a rash), dizziness, fever, inflammation, bleeding, exhaustion, necrosis, fainting, pus formation, infectious diseases, anger, hatred, jealousy, aggressive mental state,

2) not enough mKhris-pa: loss of general bodily heat, loss of skin tone or skin lustre, cold sensation, complexion turns dark, constipation, pale complexion, weakness of digestive heat.

3) severe diseased/disturbed state of mKhris-pa: thin, taut and fast pulse beat, reddish-yellow urine, bad-smelling urine with strong vapour or steam, headache, hot flesh or hot body due to increase of body temperature, sour and bitter tastes in the mouth (according to the Chinese classification of taste), thick/sticky/yellowish coatings of phlegm on the tongue, dryness of nostrils, skin complexion  and sclera of eyes turn yellowish, red, or reddish-yellow, shooting pain at certain points, light sleep or no sleep at night, drowsy in the daytime, saliva and mucus tastes salty, extreme thirst, vomiting and diarrhea of blood and bile, profuse foul-smelling sweatiness, orange stool, boils (skin infections that start in a hair follicle or oil gland and fill with pus so they have a white spot, a type of abscess), pus eruptions, swelling and abscesses (buildup of pus under the skin, usually red/swollen, caused by body's reaction to fever-inducing invaders by disintegrating tissues), digestive pain at noon or night.

Bad-kan (earth/water or phlegm)- this is caused at base by ignorance/lack of enlightened wisdom combined with too much lethargy/close-mindedness/lack of awareness.

Behaviors that cause bad-kan disease: laying down and sleeping right after intake of food or after a heavy meal, sleeping in the daytime, oversleeping, sedentary lifestyle, excessive consumption of food and drink, overeating when you have not finished digesting the previous meal, oversleeping, staying damp and cold in general, working in wet conditions/too much swimming, wearing thin clothes, exposure to strong wind, lying on damp places, feeling chilled after a bath, habit of drinking water after eating, eating too much, eating too many sweets.

Diet that causes bad-kan disease: all dairy products, cold unwarmed milk, all refrigerated foods, goat meat, fresh raw meat, old radish, intake of raw, unripe or stale wheat and peas, eating unripe or stale foods in general, eating meat of weak or mal-nutritious animals like goats and in some cases cattle, strong intake of fats and oils, consumption of too much plant-based oil such as mustard seed or peanut seed or sunflower seed oil, intake of rotten foods, intake of stale radishes/carrots/turnips, intake of raw mountain garlic, excessive intake of raw foods such as salads, raw vegetables, eating uncooked foods, eating burnt foods, intake of leftover foods, strong intake of cow and goats milk, curd and whey, strong intake of cold water and tea, strong black tea, burnt foods, greasy and hard-to-digest foods, excessive intake of "bitter and sweet" tastes, and foods that are simultaneously "heavy, cool, and unctuous/oily" (according to the Chinese system of classification of taste), ice cream, ice water, soft drinks like pepsi or coca-cola, eating too much sugar or carbohydrates, deep fried meat and food.

Aggravations: late winter and early spring time, during humid weather, under 16 years of age, in the morning around 8 AM, in the evening/dusk around 8 PM, after a meal with watery fruits such as watermelon/grapes/oranges or with vegetables like potatoes/cucumber or with paprika, after drinking too much water, when physically inactive, during cold and wet weather. after eating, after eating sweet/oily/fatty foods.

Symptoms:

1) too much bad-kan: loss of bodily heat, indigestion, heaviness of the body and obesity, pale complexion, tiredness of body or lethargy, slackness or flaccidity of limbs, excessive accumulation of saliva in the mouth, abundant accumulation of mucus or mucus/saliva mixture in the mouth, drowsiness or heavy sleep, breathing discomfort or difficulties, general weight gain, symptoms worsen in damp humid weather, weak digestion, loss of appetite, cold sensations on the skin, excessive flatulence, hardness of tissues, swelling of joints, vomiting, nausea, sweet and salty tastes in the mouth, declining power of speech and loss of enthusiasm.

2) not enough bad-kan: feeling of emptiness in the stomach, dizziness, heart palpitations, loosening of the joints, looseness in limbs, reduction of stability and resistance of the tissues, mental and emotional stability, similar symptoms to having too much rlung.

3) severe diseased/disturbed state of mKhris-pa: marked by a sinking, declining and slow pulse rate, pale or whitish urine with less odor and steam, inability to distinguish tastes, pale tongue and gums, pale swollen eyes, excessive discharge of mucus and phlegm in nose and throat, becomes dazed or confused, feeling of heaviness in mind and body, anorexia or loss of appetite, lack of digestive heat and physical warmth, weak digestion, pain in the kidneys, pelvis, and waist, swelling of body, growth of a goiter, vomiting and diarrhea of food and mucus, blurred memory, heavy sleep, lethargy, itching and skin irritation, stiffness in the limbs, tightness in the joints, weight increase, delayed reactions.

All of the above is taken from Tibetan Medicine: the Healing Science of Tibet, by Dr. Tsering Thakchoe Drungtso.

Individual Natural Medicines of Bhutan and their Uses:

General Time of Collection:

·      Fruits should be harvested in autumn when they are mature

·      Flowers should be harvested in spring season at the pollination time and when the aroma is intense

·      Buds and tender shoots should be harvested in the late spring

·      Leaves and milky saps should be harvested in early summer

·      Bark, cortex and resin must be harvested in early spring (February to May).

·      Roots, rhizomes, branches and trunks should be harvested in late autumn when the bulk plant nutrients are stored in them

·      Purgative medicinal plants are harvested at the end of autumn when the earth and water elements within the plants are believed to be predominant

·      Plants of emetic nature are harvested in mid or end of spring when the fire and air elements are believed to be predominant

·      For high altitude plants, the flowering season is generally between June and September

_{Phurpa Wangchuck}

263 species so far

High Altitude Medicinal Plants (129 species used to make 98 essential traditional medicines, 300 species total)

*can be seen at Jomolhari or below or at Chelela

_{173 species listed below}

Bong murr (Aconitum creagromorphum)- "red=murr"*- root is used. Used for meat poisoning, general poisoning, fever _{Drg Sangay}

Indian Atis, Monkshood, Tibetan: Bong-kar, Hindi: Atis, Patis (Aconitum heterophyllum)-- grows in the Himalayas at 1800-4500 m. The whole plant is collected around August (Aug-Sep) and after proper cleaning is dried in a cool place. It has two tubers, and the younger tuber is commonly used for propagation. The taste according to traditional Tibetan system of taste is "bitter", and "cool", "light" and "fluidity". Used to treat complications caused by poisoning, snake bite, scorpion sting, contagious fever, fever associated with khris-pa disorders, intestinal fever and to reduce fever associated with inflammations. _{Tibetan Medicinal Plants handbook}

Bong Nak, Black Monkshood (Aconitum lacianiatum)*- grows in Bhutan in grassy alpine slopes and amongst shrubs at 3400-4570 m. Tubers, leaves and flowers are used. Anthelmentic (anti-parasitic worm/helminth), allays bone diseases, gout (a disease with inflammation of the smaller joints, especially the toe, as a result of excess uric acid salts in the blood), chronic infection and leprosy. *very toxic, absolutely deadly, and requires a particular detoxifying method before it can be used. _{Phurpa Wangchuck}

Bong karr, Bong kurr, Ponkar (Aconitum naviculare, Aconitum ferox var. naviculare), "white = karr"*- This plant is endangered. Root, leaf, flower, fruit used. Used for poisoning (snake bite), cough caused by heat and related to germs/bacteria, bile/khris-pa diseases, dysentery _{Drg Sangay} A threatened and endemic Himalayan plant. _{https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264546730_Aconitum_naviculare_A_threatened_and_endemic_medicinal_plant_of_the_Himalaya}

Bong-karr, Bong-nga-karpo, Yellow Monskhood (Aconitum orochryseum)-- grows in Bhutan in Juniper, Rhododendron scrub and Fir forests, and alpine screes at 3900-4800 m. The aerial parts are used. Antidote (anti-poison) for snake bite. Allays common cold, khris-pa inflammation and dysentery (disease of the intestine characterized by frequent bloody and mucous stools). *very toxic, and requires a particular detoxifying method before it can be used. _{Phurpa Wangchuck} Used for bile/khris-pa fever, infections, antidote to snake bite _{Medicinal Flora of Bhutan}

Nya-lo-choke, Twisted Knotweed (Aconogonon tortuosum, maybe Polygonum tortuosum)-- grows in Bhutan on stony hillsides and open grassland at 3650-4100 m. The roots are used. Abates fever and diarrhea. Anti-septic (inhibits the growth and development of microorganisms but does not necessarily kill them; can be applied to living tissue, often to prevent infection) and antimicrobial. _{Phurpa Wangchuck}

Duhm-boo karra, Few-flowered Colicroot (Aletris pauciflora)- grows in Bhutan on alpine pastures and among the shrubs at 2290-4900 m. The aerial parts are used (leaves, stems, seeds). Used for pneumatic fever (fever due to pneumonia), liver and lung diseases. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Lung-gok, Loong-gok, Chinese: Lian Ye Jiu, (Allium carolinianum, Allium aitchisonii, Allium obtusifolium, Allium platyspathum, Allium platystylum, Allium polyphyllum, Allium thomsonii)*- other type of wild onion. Root, leaf, flower, fruit are used. Used for rlung type disorders. Beneficial for general wounds. Swelling between skin and bone/ chuser, gets rid of this (anti-edema), also relieves abscess. Relieves sore throat/swollen throat & cough and cold. _{Drg. Sangay}

Zim-nak (part of family of Jungle Onion), Dark Blue Garlic (Allium cyaneum, Allium sikkimensis)*- root, flower, and fruit. Used for headache caused by bacteria, giddiness. _{Drg. Sangay}

Ri-gok, Wild Onion (Allium macranthum)*- grows in Bhutan in Lingshi and Bumthang on damp rocky ground and grassy hillsides with scrub at 3670-4880 m. The whole plant is used. Assuages gastritis (inflammation of the stomach lining), tuberculosis, and rlung/wind disorders. Anti-inflammatory.  _{Phurpa Wangchuck}

Sumo Reril, English: Silver Cloak Fern (Aleuritopteris argentea)- One of three types of low altitude ferns along with Sumo Reril and Dumbo Reril. Same use as Dumbo Reril (Polystichum squarrosum): creeping stem/root aboveground is used, used for meat-caused food poisoning, general poisoning. _{Drg. Sangay}

Ga-tik nákpo (Androsace strigillosa)- grows in Bhutan in Lingshi, Dagala and Bumthang amid shrubberies, on open slopes or in light forests at 2300-2400 m. The aerial parts are used. It is useful for edema, fever and infections. Also assuages penis-plug syndrome. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Rock Jasmine, Tibetan: Gatik-trawo (Androsace sarmentosa)- whole plant used, collected July-August and dried in a cool place. Taste is bitter and slightly hot, quality is cool. Treats obstruction of fluid in the abdominal region, fever, ascitic fluid (fluid accumulation, typically serous fluid accumulating in the abdominal/peritoneal cavity with causes such as liver disease/cancer/congestive heart failure/kidney disease), and abnormal accumulation of serous or lymphatic fluid in the body. Altitude 2700-3900 m. _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhang}

Súka, Soop-ka, Tsut-ka, Windflower (Anemone griffithii)*- grows in Bhutan in Lingshi, Dagala, and Bumthang on streamsides and clearings in cool broad-leaved, evergreen oak, blue pine and hemlock forests and more rarely in alpine meadows, at 1980-3690 m. The seeds are used. It is anti-coagulant, anti-edema and increases body temperature. _{Phurpa Wangchuck} Heals fractured bones. _{Drg. Tendrel Wangdi} Natural hot nature. A type of Tsawa (along with Eemong & Chet-tsa). Can have purple or white flowers depending on altitude, looks like tick-trefoil family. Used for chuser (diseases related to the serous fluids (black) or lymphatic fluids (white), such as edema) & increases body heat and digestive heat. _{Drg Sangay}

Tankín, Chinese: Dong Quai, English: "Female Ginseng" (Angelica sinensis)*- Root used. Used commonly for heart problem caused by heat, and also for poisons caused by heat, giddiness, and rlung and bad-kan giddiness. _{Drg. Tendrel Wangdi}

Ket-seh, Himalayan Rockcress (Arabidopsis himalaica)- grows in Bhutan in Lingshi, Dagala, and Bumthang on grazing grounds and screes at 2400-4300 m. The aerial parts are used. Anti-inflammatory and cures evil spirit affliction. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Ji-zoom, English: Greater Burdock, Japanese: Gobo (Arctium lappa)- grows in Bhutan in Thimphu, Trongsa, and Bumthang on margins of fields and gravel banks at 2500-2600 m. The seeds are used. It is anti-tumour, anti-cancer, and febrifuge. It is also useful for common cold and calculus formed in kidney (kidney stones), urinary system, and bladder. _{Purpha Wangchuck} Taste is bitter to hot, quality is cool. Seeds and roots used, harvested in September and dried in a cool place. Treats calculus formed in kidneys and urinary bladders, tumours in uterus, cancerous growth and tumours as well as problems related to various channels such as arteries, veins, and nerves. It can also be used to treat common cold, fever of the lungs, and to increase perspiration ("sweat out a fever"). The root is the part particularly effective against malignant growth and tumours. _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhang}

Tsa-atrong, Sandwort, Irish Moss (Arenaria kansuensis)*- grows in Bhutan in Lingshi, Dagala, and Bumthang on alpine mountainsides and screes, 4200-4800 m. Flowers are used. Cures lung disorders and abscess (buildup of pus under the skin, usually red/swollen, caused by body's reaction to fever-inducing invaders by disintegrating tissues) above the chest including the head. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Dhawa, English: Jack-in-the-Pulpit, Tibetan: Dhawa (Arisaema consanguneum, Arisaema heterophyllum)*- root, fruit, flower used. Used for disease caused by bacteria, and swelling, hard swellings under skin (called "deh" in Bhutan= abscess), chronic infection/infected wound. Related to skin irritation, itching, since mostly caused by bacteria. Just apply to the outside _{Drg Sangay} Also combined with other medicines for other diseases. _{Drg Sangay} Tubers, fruits, and flowers used. Flowers are collected around June, whereas tubers and fruits are collected Sep-October. These are dried in a cool place after collection. Grows at an altitude of 1500-4000 m. Taste is hot; quality is light, coarse, sharp, and hot. Tubers are used against harmful micro-organisms, swelling, malignant growth, and osteo-growth. Fruits are used to treat throat obstruction caused by poisoning and the flower parts for treating uterus diseases, thereby helping women to conceive babies. Besides, flowers are good for treating badkan-mugpo (a combination of bad-kan, khris-pa, and rlung disease). _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhan}

Khen-karr or Khen-pa karpo, English: Artemisia, Mugwort, Tibetan: Khen-nag, Hindi: Nagdona, Gathivana (Artemisia vulgaris)- aboveground parts used. Used for bleeding from nose, bleeding from other parts of the body, pain and swelling in leg and arm caused by rlung/wind. Also used in the medicinal/herbal bath therapy along with 4 other ingredients. _{Drg Sangay} Whole plant is used. Taste is bitter, quality is cool to coarse. Used in moxibustion (a therapy in China and Tibetan medicine involving burning dried "cigarettes" of artemisia and possibly other species on specific points on the body). Helps to subside swelling of the limbs and sudden swelling of other body parts. Boiled and used in medicinal baths. Used in treating cold (according to the Chinese system of cold vs. hot illness) disorders by burning and inhaling the smoke. Grows at an altitude between 1500-3500 m. Whole plant is collected around August, then dried under shade. _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhang}

Ajakzer-júm, A-jak, Creeping Aster (Aster diplostephioides)*- grows in Bhutan in Lingshi, Bumthang, and Gasa on open slopes and shrubberies at 3500-4200 m. Aboveground parts used. Joins and heals fractured cranium, allays g.nan-tshad (sepsis with fever, swelling, inflammation and pain; sepsis is also called "blood poisoning" and is the body's life-threatening response to a severe infection in which the immune system triggers an inflammatory response throughout the body, which can damage organs or cause death) including edema, and anodyne (painkiller) for body ache affecting upper parts of body. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Lug-mik, Luk-mí, Sheep-Eye, Weak Violet Aster (Aster flaccidus)*- grows in Bhutan at Lingshi, Bumthang, and Gasa on open slopes, meadows, screes and among shrubbery at 3500-4200 m. Flowers used. Useful for treating affliction by evil spirits. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Yugoshín (Aster neoelegans)*- grows in Bhutan at Thimphu and Bumthang among shrubs and in alpine forest at 2400-3600 m. Aerial parts used. Heals wounds, body swelling including mumps and abates fever caused by poisoning. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Bhutanese/Tibetan: Kerpa Karpo, English: Indian Barberry, Tree Turmeric, Hindi: Chitra, Darhald, Rasaut (Berberis aristata)*- grows in Bhutan in Thimphu, Phojoding, Lingshi (Soe), Haa, Bumthang and Trongsa on open hillsides and river banks at 1670-3000 m. Inner bark (cambium) used. Anti-dote (anti-poison) in case of poisoning and allays conjunctivitis ("pink eye") and chronic cough and cold. _{Phurpa Wangchuck} Taste is bitter (roots and cortex), astringent (flower), and sour (fruit). Quality is cool. Roots and cortex collected in spring and the flowers around April-May, while the fruits are picked around May-June and then dried. After removing the bark and pith of the stem, yellowish cortex is dried, and roots are cleaned, cut into pieces, and prepared into concentrated decoctions*. Grows at an altitude of 800-2500 m. Helps treat diffused poison, dropsy/edema cases, bloodshot eyes and all other eye ailments. Treats red and white discharge which causes burning sensation in the urinary tract, typhoid, diarrhea and dermatological diseases. *concentrated decoctions are made by coarsely cutting the plants, drying a short period, and boiling in water in a 3:2 ratio-- the heating process is continued until all the juices are extracted from the plants; later the plants are removed and the remaining mixture is gradually heated until it turns into a thick extract called a concentrated decoction _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhan Tsering Dorjee Dekhang}

Soka-puk, Tibetan: Sog-ka-pa, Hindi: Chambraka, English: Shepherd's Purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris)*- grows in Bhutan in Lingshi, Dagala, and Bumthang on grasslands and screes at 2300-4200 m. Aerial parts including seed pods used. Anti-emetic (helps control nausea). _{Phurpa Wangchuck} Fruits are used. Taste is sweet to hot; quality is heavy and stable. Used in treating diseases of the arteries, veins and nerves. Besides, it has other medicinal values for treating dropsy (edema), chronic lung diseases, restoring kidney function, stopping vomiting and has anti-tussive (anti-cough) properties. Fruits are gathered at the time of maturation and dried. _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhang}

Tibetan: Draama, English: Caragana (Caragana jubata)- used for blood diseases and to normalize menstruation. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum} Roots and stem cortex used; roots gathered in October-November with bark then removed and dried in a clean place. Taste is bitter, quality is cool. The underground parts are effective in treating fever of the muscles and channels (such as arteries, veins, and nerves). Cortex of the stems and branches endowed with sharp and coarse qualities are used to remove diseases localized in the various in the human body through emesis. Found at an altitude between 2700-4100 m.

Caraway, Goon-é, Gun-é, Tibetan: Go-nyoe, Hindi: Ajaji, Shia-jira (Carum carvi)- grows in Bhutan in Lingshi, Bumthang and Gasa on alpine meadows at 3500-4200 m or elsewhere at 1800-3660 m and cultivated in Thimphu. Seeds are used. Allays giddiness, hypertension (high blood pressure), poisonings, and eye infection. Also useful as a stomachic agent (promoting the appetite or assisting digestion). _{Purpha Wangchuck} Useful as part of a heated herbal poultice treatment on the head and temple to treat rlung disorders, including headache, dizziness, stiff limb, mental illness, rapid breathing due to rlung disorder. _{Drg. Tendrel Wangdi} Seeds collected when mature in August, though some sources recommend collecting before they are fully ripe when essential oil content is at a maximum. Taste is bitter, hot, and astringent and quality is neutral and oily. Helps in treating rlung/wind associated with fever disorder, poisoning, light or initial cataract, opthalmic diseases and fever diseases of the heart. Helps to subside swelling and treats bad-kan/phlegm diseases (not finished with info from this book) _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhang}

Mik-sen Nakpo (Cavea tanguensis)- grows in Bhutan in Lingshi, Dagala, and Bumthang on glacier grassy side, slope and rocky soil at 4250-4570 m. Aerial parts used. Antiseptic (inhibits the growth and development of microorganisms but does not necessarily kill them; can be applied to living tissue, often to prevent infection) and anti-inflammatory. Allays gag-lhog (laryngitis), localized swelling and acts as a resolvent (a drug or substance affecting the resolution of a tumour) and febrifuge in case of dug-tshad (poisoning characterized by fever and pain in all parts of body). _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Neyo/Nyoo, Tibetan: Neew, Goosefoot, Lamb's Quarters, Hindi: Bethu Sag, Cheel (Chenopodium album)*- aboveground parts (leaf, fruit, flower) used. Used for rlung-type disorders. Used for sweating too much due to heat. Rlung disorders combined with hot disorders. Also for wounds. _{Drg. Tendrel Wangdi} Taste is sweet and hot, quality is warm, oily and heavy. Helps to treat high fever by reducing the fever through frequent perspirations and fever associated with rlung. It heals wounds and bone fractures.

Yakíma, Forestii Golden-Saxifrage (Chrysosplenium forestii)- grows in Bhutan in Lingshi and Dagala. Aerial parts used. Allays bile/khris-pa diseases. _{Purpha Wangchuck} Cures bile/khris-pa diseases _{Medicinal Flora of Bhutan}.

Saxifrage, Tibetan: Zedum-tashi (Chrysosplenium spp.) For all Saxifrage species in general, the roots are astringent to bitter, cool, coarse, and sharp and the medicinal paste formulated from this root can be applied externally to remove warts. Grows from 3000-3200 m in altitude, and the roots are collected around August and dried in a semi-shade clearing; the roots are then prepared in concentrated decoctions by coarsely cutting the plants, drying a short period, and boiling in water in a 3:2 ratio-- the heating process is continued until all the juices are extracted from the plants; later the plants are removed and the remaining mixture is gradually heated until it turns into a thick extract called a concentrated decoction.

Jang-tser-nakpo, English: Woolly Thistle (Cirsium eriophorideum)- root and leaf used. Used for indigestion and bad-kan/phlegm, abscess, body swelling. _{Drg. Sangay}

Eemong kárpo (Clematis acutangula, C. ranunculoides)*- grows in Bhutan in Thimphu, Paro, Trashigang, and Bumthang on open scrub in blue pine and cool broad-leaved forest at 1500-3200 m. The stem without the bark is used. It is anti-tumour, aperitive (stimulating the appetite), prevents unwanted serous fluid (yellow-tinged fluid that fills body cavities; also causes edema; diseases related to the serous fluids (black) or lymphatic fluids (white), such as edema) accumulation and useful for indigestion. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Eemong Karpo, Tibetan: Eemong Trawo, Hindi: Ghantiali, Jai, Kanguli, English: Mountain Clematis (Clematis montana)- aboveground part used. _{Drg Sangay} Stems used. Branches with leaves collected July-August then cleaned by removing the stem nodes which are chopped into small pieces and dried in the sun. At the time of use, it has to undergo a special burning process called nue-sek which is then used in medicine. _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhang} Hot nature (Tsawa) along with Chet-tsa, and Soopka. Considered one of the three natural hot medicines. Increases digestive heat, helps weak digestion, "stones" in the stomach caused by cold nature. Also for Long-ten-- stones in the large intestine. And for chuser diseases (diseases related to the serous fluids (black) or lymphatic fluids (white), such as edema) _{Drg Sangay} Taste is hot to slightly hot; quality is light, warm, coarse and sharp. Used to treat loss of digestive heat, loss of appetite, badkan/phlegm and rlung/wind related growths or tumours, colon tumours including other types of tumours, and chuser diseases (diseases related to the serous fluids (black) or lymphatic fluids (white), such as edema). High altitude plant. _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhang}

Eemong Nakpo "black Eemong" (Clematis orientalis)- Same use/parts used as Eemong Karpo and Eemong "Troh" _{Drg Sangay}

Eemong "troh" (Clematis pseudopogonandra) *- Same use/parts used as Eemong Karpo and Eemong Nakpo. High altitude plant. _{Drg Sangay}

Eemong Nakpo "black Eemong", Eemong Karpo, English: Virgin's Bower (Clematis virginiana)- stems are used. Branches with leaves collected July-August then cleaned by removing the stem nodes which are chopped into small pieces and dried in the sun. At the time of use, it has to undergo a special burning process called nue-sek which is then used in medicine. Taste is hot with slightly sweet taste, quality is light, warm, coarse and sharp. Grows at an altitude between 1800-4000 m. Used to treat weak digestive heat, indigestion, bad-kan/phlegm and rlung/wind related growth of tumours as well as against accumulation of chuser (chuser refers to the serous fluids (black) or lymphatic fluids (white)). _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhang}

Lu-du Doh-jé, Bhutan Bluebell (Codonopsis bhutanica)- grows in Bhutan in Lingshi and Dagala among shrubs and stony ground at 4200-4800 m. Whole plant is used. Cures evil affliction, (tinging: tingling? or stinging?), nephrosis (kidney disease, especially when characterized by edema and the loss of protein from the plasma into the urine because the parts of the kidney that filter the blood (glomules) become more permeable and less effective), numbness, gout (a disease with inflammation of the smaller joints, especially the toe, as a result of excess uric acid salts in the blood), leprosy, and helps in blood regulation. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Ngi-wa, Bonnet Bellflower (Codonopsis vinciflora or Codonopsis convolvulacea var. vinciflora)- grows in Bhutan in Thimphu (Lingzhi) and Bumthang on open hillsides and among shrubs at 3600-4400 m. Bulbs are used. Alleviates common cough and cold, and also chest pain. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Caterpillar fungus, Yarshagumba, Yarsagumba (Cordyceps sinensis)- useful for kidney disorders and optimizes spermatogenesis. General tonic and relieves fever arising from lung disorders. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Dong-grí Silpa (Corydalis calliantha)- grows in Bhutan on alpine cliff ridges, damp screes and streamsides at 4500-4900 m. Whole plant used. Anti-malarial, anti-inflammatory and anti-fever. Allays cough and cold, jaundice, gab-tshad (inflammation affecting the body internally without sign or symptom) and hyperdipsia (intense thirst relatively of brief duration) due to fever. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Ngo-bashaka, Bashaka, chu bo huang jin (tiny yellow flowers, much higher altitude)* (Corydalis crispa, Corydalis stracheyoides)- grows in Bhutan in Lingshi, Dagala, Bumthang, Laya and Lhuntse on damp mountain screes and stream sides from 4000-4600 m. Whole plant used. Allays blood, liver, and khris-pa/bile disorders. _{Purpha Wangchuck} Relieves liver disease/ khris-pa diseases, high blood pressure associated with headache. Aboveground parts, not root, used. _{Drg Sangay}

Ray-kin (Corydalis dubia)- grows in Bhutan in Lingshi and Bumthang on alpine scree slopes at 4500-4900 m. Whole plant used. Detoxifies impure blood, and allays bad-kan-smug-po (disease due to the combination of rlung, khris-pa and bad-kan), khrag-tshad (blood disorders with fever), don-tshad (combination of 5 disorders: snying-tshad (heart disorders associated with fever, drowsiness, irritability to thick warm clothes, darkening of tongue, thirsty, loss of appetite, and pain in the upper chest), m.chin-tshad (liver disorders associated with fever, redness in eyes, blood in sputum, coughing, and pain on the right side underneath the ribcage), g.lo-tshad (lung disorders with fever, cough, breathlessness, simultaneous chest and back pain, dizziness, and difficulty speaking), m.cher-tshad (spleen disorder with pain on the left side, swelling of stomach area, breathlessness, whitening of tongue, darkening of lips, swelling of knees, severe backache, numbness and tingling sensation), m.khal-tshad (renal/kidney disorder with irregular urination, reddish urine with much vapors, inability to walk, back pain, giddiness, hearing difficulty), and neuralgia (a painful disorder of the nerves due to functional disturbances or neuritis, neuritis being inflammation of the nerve). _{Purpha Wangchuck} Science has found antimalarial compounds _{https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229151896_Antimalarial_alkaloids_from_a_Bhutanese_traditional_medicinal_plant_Corydalis_dubia}

Kuan Hua Zi Jin (Corydalis gerdae, Corydalis latiflora, Corydalis alburyi, Corydalis mitae)- 4100 meters, used as an antimalarial and for infectious diseases _{Medicinal Flora of Bhutan}

Glaucous Corydalis, Early Fumitory, Tibetan: Tra-Zang, Hindi: Bhut kis (Corydalis ramosa, Corydalis vaginans)- above ground parts used, collected between July-August and then cleaned and dried in cool and shady places. Taste is bitter, quality is cool. This herb is beneficial in treating fever of the vital organs, high blood pressure associated with fever, bleeding and cancerous lesions. Grows at altitudes of 3800-4200 m. _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhang}

Japotsitsi (Cotoneaster microphyllus)*- grows in Bhutan in Lingshi, Dagala, and Bumthang on rocks, banks, and alpine slopes at 2000-5400 m. Fruits used. Stops excessive blood loss during menstruation. Useful for khris-pa/bile disorders. _{Purpha Wangchuck} Reduces excessive bleeding during menstruation. _{Drg. Jamyang}

Minchen serpo, Miksen serpo, Chinese: Tiao Ye Chui Tou Ju (Cremanthodium lineare)*- leaf used. Used for when you get a strong fever, caused by bacteria. Used for high blood pressure with rlung/wind. _{Drg. Sangay}

Ga-shó, Chinese: Wu Mao Chiu Tou Ju (Cremanthodium lingulatum, Cremanthodium pseudo-oblongatum)*- upside down sunflower, found at high altitudes. Stem and flower and leaf used. Used for khris-pa/bile, bad-kan/phlegm, and poisoning. _{Drg Sangay}

Minchen nakpo, Miksen nakpo, Chinese: Che Qian Ye Chui Tou Ju, English: Himalayan Mini Sunflower (Cremanthodium plantagineum, Cremanthodium ellisii)*- stem and flower used. Used for when you get a strong fever, caused by bacteria. Used for high blood pressure with rlung/wind. Sore/swollen throat preventing you from breathing not caused by cough & cold, not caused by asthma. _{Drg. Sangay}

Nyen-bu Mempa Nya-nyin Mehto (mehto means flower) (Cyananthus chungdienensis)*- root, leaf, flower used. Used for general khris-pa/bile _{Drg Sangay}

Nyerma jerma, Nyetma, Nyetma-yub, Chinese Forget-Me-Not (Cynoglossum amabile)*- Flower is used. Wounds, swollen legs/arms, bone fracture _{Drg. Tendrel Wangdi}

Wong-lak-cho, Salam Panja, Hatta Hadid, Himalayan Marsh Orchid (Dactylorhiza hatagirea)- grows in Bhutan in Soe, Lingshi, Tokchung (Bumthang), Gasa and Trashi Yangtse on open slopes, shrubberies and marshy areas at 3500-4500. Rhizomes (root) used. Aphrodisiac, strengthens body and increases longevity. _{Purpha Wangchuck} Critically endangered. _{http://www.flowersofindia.net/catalog/slides/Himalayan%20Marsh%20Orchid.html}

Ja-geh-pé, Musk Larkspur (Delphinium brunonianum)- grows in Bhutan in Lingshi, Gangkar Punsum, stems, leaves, and flowers used. Detoxicant. Allays common cold, skin diseases, and khris-pa/bile disorders. _{Purpha Wangchuck} Most likely toxic _{Olivia Lewis}

Timoosa, Timisa, Chinese: Lan Cui Que Hua, English: Caerulean Larkspur (Delphinium caeruleum)*- stops diarrhea problem. _{Drg. Sangay} This plant is toxic. _{http://temperate.theferns.info/plant/Delphinium+caeruleum} A parasiticde obtained from leaves and uses is used for external problems only, such as killing maggots in the wounds of goats, due to the extreme toxicity of the plant _{http://practicalplants.org/wiki/Delphinium_caeruleum}

Ja-kúhng, Byarkang, Larkspur (Delphinium drepanocentrum)- grows in Bhutan in Lingshi, Dagala and Bumthang on shrubberies and open slopes at 3300-5500 m. Aerial parts used. Useful for dermatitis (aka eczema, a group of diseases causing inflammation of the skin characterized by itchiness, red skin and a rash), dysentery (disease of the intestine characterized by frequent bloody and mucous stools), wounds and abscess (buildup of pus under the skin, usually red/swollen, caused by body's reaction to fever-inducing invaders by disintegrating tissues). _{Purpha Wangchuck} Most likely toxic _{Olivia Lewis}

Dee-yang-koh, Pri-yang-ku, Ti-yang-ku (Dracocephalum tanguiticum)- grows in Bhutan in Lingshi, and in Thimphu it is cultivated. Aerial parts used. Diburetic and anti-dropsy (anti-edema). Also useful for treating bleeding and wounds. Allays fever from lung, liver and stomach disorders. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Yehdden, Shield Sundew, Pale Sundew (Drosera peltata)- grows in Bhutan in Thimphu and Bumthang on grass slopes at 1500-3600 m. Aerial parts are used. It is tonic, haematinic (an agent that improves the quality of blood, increasing hemoglobin level and the number of erythrocytes or red blood cells), and sharpens sense organs. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Bejang Reril, Bejó Reril, Chinese: Qin Ling Hu Jue, English: a type of fern; Gusuibu (Drynaria baronii, Polypodium baronii, Drynaria reducta, Drynaria sinensis, Drynaria sinica var. intermedia)*- One of three types of low altitude ferns along with Sumo Reril and Dumbo Reril. Same use as Dumbo Reril (Polystichum squarrosum): creeping stem/root aboveground is used, used for meat-caused food poisoning, general poisoning. _{Drg. Sangay} Some studies have been done on its use for osteoarthritis _{https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3449242}

Druk-shing-pa, Chinese: Shi Zao Zi (Euonymus monbeigii, Eunoymus sanguineus)*- stem and fruit is used. Used for loonet, look-net (diseases caused by local deities). _{Drg. Sangay}

Mok (pronounced "Muck"), Autumn Olive (Eleagnus umbellata)*- ripe fruits are useful for diarrhea _{Drg. Tendrel Wangdi} They are also edible. _{Olivia Lewis}

Tsedúm, Tse-doom, Ephedra (Ephedra gerardiana)*- used as one of the 5 herbs used in traditional herbal baths/ medicinal steam baths. _{Drg. Jamyang}  Grows in Bhutan in Lingshi, Dagala and Bumthang on stony slopes, gravel terraces and in drier areas at 2400-5000 m. Aerial parts used. Used for wounds, injuries, fever, liver and spleen inflammation. Stops bleeding and also rejuvenates the body. _{Phurpa Wangchuck}

Drak-tse (type of Tsedoom)*- general use of Tsedum (Ephedra saxatilis, Ephedra intermedia, Ephedra eguisetina) is aboveground parts. Stops bleeding, chronic fever, regular (non-chronic) fever, khris-pa/bile diseases, spleen and liver diseases caused by heat, general heat disorders _{Drg Sangay}

Ditsi gang-shuhm, Pangsin purú (Eriophyton wallichii)*- grows in Bhutan in Lingshi, Dagala and Bumthang on stony slopes and screes at 4300-5400 m. The whole plant is used. It heals wounds or infections in the lung and relieves its associated fever. Regenerates and strengthens torn nerves, ruptured blood arteries and veins. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Goong-tokpa (Erysimum bhutanicum)*- grows in Bhutan in Barshong, Soe, Lingshi, Punakha, and Bumthang on open slopes, river banks and hillsides at 3500-4300 m. Aerial parts used. Useful for insomnia, lung disorders, meat poisoning and stress. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Durjét, Fireglow Spurge (Euphorbia griffithii, Tithymalus griffithii, E. sikkimensis subspecies bhutanica)*- grows in Bhutan in clearings and among scrub in Blue pine, Oak, Conifer, and Rhododendron forests, altitude 2300-3500 m. The root bark is used as a purgative (medicine which purges or causes undue and profuse evacuation from bowel) and anti-inflammatory. _{Purpha Wangchuck} Cures fevers, reduces body temperature. _{Drg. Jamyang}

Tarrnu, Himalayan Spurge, Wallich Spurge (Euphorbia wallichii)*- grows in Bhutan in Thimphu, Haa and Bumthang on alpine meadows and conifer/rhododendron scrub at 4000-4800 m. Roots used. Laxative, diuretic, anti-inflammatory, and purgative (medicine which purges or causes undue and profuse evacuation from bowel). Useful for edema, eczema (a group of diseases causing inflammation of the skin characterized by itchiness, red skin and a rash), pimples and fungal infections. _{Phurpa Wangchuck} Exudes a poisonous milky sap. _{Drg. Tendrel Wangdi}

Jimtiklé Karpo (Euphrasia melanosticta)*- grows in Bhutan in Lingshi and Dagala on open slopes and damp places at 2700-4200 m. The whole plant is used. It is anti-septic (inhibits the growth and development of microorganisms but does not necessarily kill them; can be applied to living tissue, often to prevent infection), antimicrobial and for conjunctivitis ("pink-eye"). _{Phurpa Wangchuck}

Phaphara, Braw (Fagopyrum tataricum)- an inferior type of buckwheat, cooling and light. Cures ulcers and aggravates phlegm/bad-kan and rlung/wind. An other type of buckwheat is similar. _{Dean of trad. medicine}

Deeta Sazin/ Strawberry (Fragaria nubicola)*- grows in Bhutan in Lingshi, Dagala and Bumthang in shrubberies and alpine slopes at 3200-4800 m. Whole plant is used. Anthelmintic (anti-parasitic worm/helminth). Allays neurological disorders, chest infections and lung inflammations. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Karpo tsík-tup, Abikha (Fritillaria delavayi, Fritillaria bhutanica) - grows in Bhutan in screes and gravels at 4570-4880 m. Bulbs used. Detoxifier, blood purifier (improving the hemoglobin content and facilitating the smooth blood flow), and anti-fever. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Zawng-tsi Karpo, Cleavers (Galium aparine)- grows in Bhutan in shrubberies and open grasslands at 2600-4200 m. Aerial parts used. Relieves migraine and sinusitis. Cures bile/khris-pa disorders such as jaundice. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Pungehn Nyénpoh, Arctic Gentian, Whitish Gentian (Gentiana algida, Gentianodes algida)- grows in Bhutan on screes and damp grassy slopes at 4200-5000 m. Aerial parts used. Febrifuge, useful for sore throat. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Lawa sedma, Lawa sigma, Chinese: Shuo Hua Long Dan, (Gentiana amplicrater)*- flower is used. Khris-pa caused by heat, and cough & fever caused by bacteria or virus. _{Drg. Tendrel Wangdi}

Ga-durr, Trailing Geranium, Cranesbill (Geranium procurrens)- grows in Bhutan in clearings in Blue Pine and Fir forests, Juniper scrub at 3500-4200 m. Roots used. Anti-diarrheal, anti-toxin (any substance that neutralizes a given toxin), allays cough and cold, bronchitis, swelling of limbs and it is a febrifuge in case of glo-tshad (lung disorders with fever, cough, breathlessness, simultaneous chest and back pain, dizziness, and difficulty speaking) and rtsa-tshad (neurological problems such as paralysis and neuralgia--a painful disorder of the nerves due to functional disturbances or neuritis, neuritis being inflammation of the nerve-- with fever). _{Purpha Wangchuck}

La-gung, Le-ga-dru, Upside-down Geranium (Geranium refractum)*- grows in Bhutan on open grassland, shrubberies and mountain meadows at 3500-4000 m. Roots used. Allays glo-nad (lung disorders), glo-tshad (lung disorders with fever, cough, breathlessness, simultaneous chest and back pain, dizziness, and difficulty speaking), skad-'gag (difficulty in speaking due to phlegm/bad-kan and lung disorder), rlung-nad (rlung/wind disorders characterized by headache, yawning, nausea, blurred vision, dizziness and shivering), diarrhea and small intestine disorders. _{Phurpa Wangchuck}

Kiché, Kitzi Karpo (Gentiana robusta, Gentiana tibetica var. robusta, Gentiana lhakagensis)*- grows in Bhutan in habitat of open grassland and shrubs at 3500-4600 m. Flowers used. Heals wounds, swelling and inflammation of stomach and liver. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Gang-a-choong, Urn Gentian (Gentiana urnula)- grows in Bhutan on rocky and gravelly slopes at 3900-5700 m. Whole plant used. Allays dug-tshad (poisoning characterized by fever and pain in all parts of body), khrags-tshad (blood inflammation such as hypertension, aka high blood pressure), m.khris-tshad (bile/khris-pa disorders associated with fever, abdominal pain, and irregular urination), bad-kan-smug-po (disease due to the combination of rlung, khris-pa and bad-kan), fitful and coughing. It is also hydragogue (a cathartic that causes copious watery discharges from the bowels; a medicine which causes free secretion from the intestinal glands and removes excess serum from the blood vessels, producing fluid or watery motions), deobstruent (removing obstructions; having the power to clear or open the natural ducts of the fluids and secretions of the body, even including poop), attenuant (thins or dilutes or increases the fluidity of the blood or other secretion), and anti-diarrheal. _{Purpha Wangchuck} Detoxicant, diarrhea _{Medicinal Flora of Bhutan}

Jaktik ragoma (Halenia elliptica)*- grows in Bhutan on open slopes, shrubberies and meadows at 3900-4200 m. Aerial parts used. Heals wounds. Also allays common cold, cough, and headaches caused by the disturbances involving bile/khris-pa and the blood. _{Purpha Wangchuck} Mainly used for khris-pa disease. Has to be detoxified before use. _{Drg. Jamyang}

Too-kurr*- like Too-Cha, but low altitude (Heracleum candicans)- root and fruit used. Used for strong fever caused by bacteria causing red/swollen skin on the outside. Also for bleeding, dysentery caused by bacteria, leprosy. Fruits specifically benefit rlung/wind._{. Drg. Sangay} In the Cow-Parsnip family- a rare herb. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11627-999-0014-0

Too-cha, a type of Cow-Parsnip (Heracleum obtusifolium)*- grows in Bhutan in open slopes and drier areas at 3200-4300 m. Roots used. Relieves headache, and cures leprosy and neurological disorders. Stops bleeding. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Sérgí Mehto, Himalayan Gourd (Herpetospermum pedunculosum)- grows in Bhutan as a climber on shrubs and also cultivated at 1800-3600 m. Seeds used. Allays bile and intestinal disorders. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Tarbú, Willow-leaved Seabuckthorn, Seabuckthorn (Hippophae salicifolia)*- grows in Bhutan on riversides at 2100-3600 m. Fruits used. Anti-coagulant. Useful in treating tuberculosis and liver diseases. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Dam-bu-ka-ra, English: Common Mare's Tail (Hippuris vulgaris)- a common aquatic plant from North America to Eurasia to Tibet. Root and whole plant is used. Used for lung disease caused by heat, liver disease caused by heat, bone disease caused by heat, used for gastritis and stomach problems caused by "old blood" or chronic blood problems, including ulcers. Used also for nerve problems caused by heat, also for cuts, and for cough & cold. _{Drg. Sangay}

Par-pahtah, Himalayan Little Poppy (Hypecoum leptocarpum)- grows in Bhutan in cultivated fields as a weed, on stony hillsides and sandy areas at 3000-4200 m. Useful for treating common cough and cold, skin diseases, blood pressure and poisonings. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Ju-targa, Ju-targu, Ju-der-ga, Blue Dream Impatiens (Impatiens arguta)*- cute pink flowers, uncut but toothed leaves. Leaf, stem, flower, roots used. Blood circulation problems, blood clots and blockages of nerves. Menstruation problem. Urine problem. _{Drg. Tendrel Wangdi}

Mingchen Serpo, Showy Elecampane (Inula grandiflora)*- grows in Bhutan in shrubberies and open slopes. Flowers used. Cures abscess (buildup of pus under the skin, usually red/swollen, caused by body's reaction to fever-inducing invaders by disintegrating tissues)/boils (skin infections that start in a hair follicle or oil gland and fill with pus so they have a white spot, a type of abscess), numbness, fever and evil affliction. _{Phurpa Wangchuck}

Manú, Maní, Pushkarmool, Indian Elecampane (Inula racemosa)*- grows in Bhutan in cultivated areas at 2000-3200 m. Root is used. Anti-hypertensive (reduces blood pressure), eupeptic (improves digestion), and analgesic (painkiller). Allays bad-kan-smug-po (disease due to the combination of rlung, khris-pa and bad-kan), glang-thab (severe abdominal pain or colic), inflammation of stomach, nausea and premature cough and cold. _{Phurpa Wangchuck} An ingredient in the Seven Precious Herbs Remedy for cough & cold. _{Dean of trad. medicine}

Deh-mah-poh, Kumaon Iris (Iris kemaonensis)- grows in Bhutan on grazing ground, alpine slopes and often in large clumps at 2800-4000 m. Seeds are used. Anthelmintic (anti-parasitic worm/helminth; destroys or expels them) and anti-pyretic (anti-fever). _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Shuk-serr, Himalayan Juniper (Juniperus recurva)*- leaf is used. Considered "god's medicine". Used for incense and medicinal steam baths (herbal baths). Out of the 5 herbal ingredients used in these baths, it is the most important. _{Drg. Jamyang} Used for kidney problem caused by heat _{Drg Sangay}

Shuk-pa-tser-jinn, Flaky Juniper (Juniperus squamata)- grows in Bhutan in inner valleys and alpine slopes, at 3000-4500 m. Leaves used. Useful for kidney inflammation and accumulation of serous fluid (yellow-tinged fluid that fills body cavities) in joints. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Shuk-pa, Black Juniper (Juniperus indica, Juniperus wallichiana, Juniperus pseudosabina)- Grows in Bhutan in shrubberies in drier areas and alpine slopes in clumps, sometimes forms low open forest. Fruits used. Useful for kidney disorders & infections. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Bai-yak, Depgul (Lancea tibetica)- grows in Bhutan in damp places and grazing grounds at 3000-4800 m. Whole plant is used. Useful for lung and heart disorders and dries wounds. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Tok-choong-wa, Tok-chúwa, Chinese: Da Ding Cao, English: Japanese Gerbera (Leibnitzia anandria, Gerbera anandria, Tussilago anandria, Anandria laevipes, Gerbera cavaleriei, Gerbera integripetala, Gerbera pterodonta, Gerbea bonatiana, Perdicium anadria, Perdicium tomentosum)*- All parts of the plant used. Used to stop bleeding. _{Drg. Sangay}

Ta-wa, Himalayan Edelweiss (Leontopodium himalayanum, L. alpinum)*- grows in Bhutan on rocky hillsides and alpine turf at 3800-5500 m. Leaves are used. Useful as an ingredient for moxibustion. _{Phurpa Wangchuck} Used for giddiness (typically due to rlung), in herbal hot compression therapy (rubbing heated up herbs in a cloth bag, against skin that has been covered with sesame oil).

Drakpe re-ril (Lepisorus contortus)*- re-ril means "fern". _{Drg. Tendrel Wangdi} Grows in Bhutan in rocky places and alpine forests at 3500-4600 m. Leaves are used. Heals bone fracture, burns, wounds and useful for kidney disorders. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Ri-shó, Chinese: Huang Zhou Tuo Wu, English: Leopard Plant (Ligularia virgaurea)- leaf and stem are used. Used for stomach pain, indigestion, wounds and infections, chronic cough and cold, vomiting diseases _{Drg Sangay}                                   

Abí-kuh, Tiny Lily (Lilium nanum)- grows in Bhutan on grassy and rocky open places or among Rhododendron scrub at 3300-4800 m. Whole plant used. Antidote (anti-poison) and heals head injuries. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Pungma, Puhng-ma, English: Lilac-flowered Honeysuckle (Lonicera syringantha)*- fruit is used. Used for heart disease caused by heat, gynocelogical problems. _{Drg Sangay}

Nyi-ga, Mi-ga, Jahm-pa, Common Mallow (Malva sylvestris)*- grows in Bhutan on waste land and is cultivated, at 3650-4200 m. Aerial parts (stems, flowers, seeds) used. Revitalizes kidney. Diuretic, anti-diarrheal and heals wounds. _{Purpha Wangchuck} Three types of Nyi-ga: male, female, and bisexual/monoecious. The 3 types are po (male), mo (female), and muni (both). This type is muni-nyiga, the type that has both male and female flowers. Used for urine-related problems causing you to feel thirsty and have diarrhea. Also helps dry out wounds _{Drg. Sangay}

Mook-choong den-yen, type of Blue Poppy (Meconopsis discigera)- grows in Bhutan on alpine slopes, screes, and moraines among dwarf Rhododendron forest at 3190-4600 m. Aerial parts used. Anti-coagulant, eases placenta removal after delivery and improves blood formation. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Tse-Nyen Mehtó, Blue Poppy (Meconopsis horridula)*- grows in Bhutan on alpine cliffs, screes, and rocky slopes at 3800-4700 m. Aboveground parts used. Allays bone fracture, wounds and it is useful for revitalizing the synovial fluids (synovial fluid is a viscous fluid found in the cavities of synovial joints, whose principal role is to reduce friction between the articular cartilage of synovial joints-- such as those at the knees, elbows, ankles, and wrists-- during movement). _{Purpha Wangchuck} National flower of Bhutan. _{Drg. Jamyang}

Upel Serpo, Oopehl Serpo, Panicled Yellow Poppy (Meconopsis paniculata)- grows in Bhutan on grassy and rocky alpine hillsides, among Juniper/Rhododendron scrub and Fir forests, open slopes, and grazing grounds at 3350-4260 m. Flowers used. Used for fever related to lung and liver disorders. Promotes digestion and alleviates phlegm/bad-kan disorders. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Upel Nyenpo, Oopehl Serpo, Common Blue Poppy (Meconopsis simplicifolia)- grows in Bhutan among Juniper/Rhododendron scrub and on rocky alpine hillsides and screes at 3500-4600 m. Aerial parts used. Used as an anti-pyretic (anti-fever) agent against fever associated with inflammation of lung and liver. National flower of Bhutan. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Ja-pé, Ja-peu, English: Sweet Clover, Melilot; Kumoniga (Melilotus suaveolens)*- the whole plant is used for long-term fever, burning sensations caused by poisoning _{Drg. Tendrel Wangdi}

Jang-ser-looma-tawa (Morina betonicoides, Morina nepalensis)- grows in Bhutan in damp or marshy areas, cliffs, clearings in Juniper, Birch and Spruce forests at 2434-4572 m. Aerial parts used. Emetic and purgative (medicine which purges or causes undue and profuse evacuation from bowel), used in case of indigestion and phlegm/bad-kan disorders. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Jang-tser karpo, Chinese: Huang Hua Ci Shen, English: Yellow Whorlflower (Morina coulteriana)- the highest, top level flowers are used. Indigestion and bad-kan/phlegm, vomiting/nausea caused by bad-kan. _{Drg. Sangay}

Wombú, Wumbu, Rosy False Tamarisk (Myricaria rosea)*- grows in Bhutan on stream sides at 3350-4250 m. Aerial parts used. Allays dug-tshad (poisoning characterized by fever and pain in all parts of body), khrag-tshad (blood disorders with fever), sha-dug (meat food poisoning associated with fever and pain in all parts of body), edema and cough. It is febrifuge and resolving agent (reduces inflammation and swelling). _{Purpha Wangchuck} Helps in skin diseases. One of the 5 medicinal plants used in traditional herbal baths. _{Drg. Jamyang}

Pung-péh, Spikenard (Nardostachys grandiflora)- grows in Bhutan on open slopes, rocks, and shrubberies at 3600-4800 m. Whole plant used. Antithelmintic (anti-parasitic worm/helminth), vermifuge, and detoxifier. Allays dug-tshad (poisoning characterized by fever and pain in all parts of body), chronic periodic fever, body swelling, and spleen related disorders. It is an excellent pacifier of gods, deities and nagas (evil snake spirits). _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Hong-len, Putishing, 2 types: Hong-len-Chok (better species), Hong-len-Mempa (low altitude), in Ayurveda: Kutki, Picroliv (Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora, Picrorhiza kurroa, Picrorrhiza scrophulariaefolia)- grows in Bhutan on screes, rocky slopes and shrubberies at 3500-4800 m. Rhizomes (roots) used. Allays khrag-m.khris (combined blood disorder and bile/khris-pa disorder), glang-thab (severe abdominal pain or colic), g.zer-thung (sudden abrupt painful attack above the waist region), bad-kan-smug-po (disease due to the combination of rlung, khris-pa and bad-kan), m.chin-tshad (liver disorders associated with fever, redness in eyes, blood in sputum, coughing, and pain on the right side underneath the ribcage), glo-tshad (lung disorders with fever, cough, breathlessness, simultaneous chest and back pain, dizziness, and difficulty speaking), rgyu-tshad (intestinal disorders characterized by fever, diarrhea, and blood dysentery; dysentery being a disease of the intestine characterized by frequent bloody and mucous stools), rma-tshad (chronic wound with fever) and rtsa-tshad (neurological problems such as paralysis and neuralgia-- a painful disorder of the nerves due to functional disturbances or neuritis, neuritis being inflammation of the nerve-- with fever). Anti-coagulant, anti-diarrheal, haematinic (an agent that improves the quality of blood, increasing hemoglobin level and the number of erythrocytes or red blood cells), depurative (purifying/detoxifying), and febrifuge. _{Purpha Wangchuck} A threatened Himalayan herb. _{https://www.researchgate.net/post/Kutki_Neopicrorhiza_scrophulariiflora_How_people_use_this_species} Root used. Grows at 4200 m, purifies blood, good for chronic disease, stomach pain caused by chronic blood problems eventually causing ulcers. Also used for khrugs-tsad don-tshad (mental problem caused by local deities) _{Medicinal Flora of Bhutan} A liver tonic in Ayurvedic medicine and one of the oldest medicinal plants, possibly more effective than Milk Thistle for helping liver _{https://examine.com/supplements/picrorhiza-kurroa/}

Di-mok, "mok" pronounced like in the English word "amok", Dimook, Bri-mog, also called Mogse (Onosma hookeri)*- grows in Bhutan on open grassy hillsides at 2834-5800 m. Root barks used. Allays asthma, hypertension (high blood pressure) and pneumonia. _{Purpha Wangchuck} Purple dye made from the roots. _{https://biodiversity.bt/species/show/2942} On average at 4100 m, used for asthma, high blood pressure, pneumonia. _{Medicinal Flora of Bhutan} Root only is used. Used for lung disease caused by heat, also for vomiting blood, and bleeding coming from nose, and chronic blood problems. _{Drg Sangay}

Mózira, Mo Zera, Glandulous Wild Fennel Flower (Nigella glandulifera)*- seed is used. Liver problems caused by too much cold/cold nature, and for stomach pain. _{Drg. Tendrel Wangdi} Seeds thought to have immunomodulatory and anti-tumor effects, especially in water extract _{https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23929999}

Tse-karr, Northern Milkvetch (Oxytropis lapponica var. xanthantha)- grows in Bhutan on sandy and loamy soil at 3800-4570 m. Aerial parts used. Useful in edema and sudden swellings of the body. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Hingiraza/Gingireza/Marilgonak/Himalayan Ginseng (Panax pseudoginseng, P. sikkimensis, Aralia pseudo-ginseng)*- grows in Bhutan in coniferous forests. The rhizomes (roots) are used. Provides nourishment, enhances body growth, improves body immunity, and increases overall health and longevity. _{Purpha Wangchuck} The rhizome looks like a garlic bulb. _{Drg. Tendrel Wangdi}

Ngil-tik, La-gang, yun mei hua cao (Parnassia nubicola)*- grows in Bhutan on grassy rocks at 2650-4250 m. Aerial parts used. Useful for khris-pa/bile disorders and ganglion related problems (a ganglion is an abnormal benign swelling on a tendon sheath, commonly ganglion cysts are lumps occur on the back of the wrist). _{Purpha Wangchuck} Used for headaches due to khris-pa/bile. _{Drg. Tendrel Wangdi}

Lugru Mok-po, Lugru Muk-po, Chinese: Ji Li Ma Xian Hao (Pedicularis decorissima)*-  Whole plant is used. Can tell apart from Lugru Marpo because Lugru Mok-po has a stem. All the Pedicularis have a general use as anti-edema, dries out accumulation of water in the body, such as in the joints. Anti-poison, helps with nerve problems, diarrhea, cough and cold, and most commonly stomach problem caused by bad-kan/phlegm _{Drg. Tendrel Wangdi}

Mehto Lang-na, Lousewort, Betony (Pedicularis integrifolia)- grows in Bhutan on shrubberies and open slopes at 3500-4800 m. Flowers used. Anti-edema, anti-diuretic. Allays asthma, wounds, rheumatism (disorder of the connective tissue structures especially the joints characterized by pain, stiffness or limitation of motion), edema and unwanted fluid accumulation. It also nourishes the body. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Lugru Sérpo, Yellow Lousewort, Yellow Betony (Pedicularis longiflora)- grows in Bhutan in swamp and marshy meadows often in water at 3050-5560 m. Aerial parts used. Anti-diuretic. Useful for rheumatism (disorder of the connective tissue structures especially the joints characterized by pain, stiffness or limitation of motion). Regulates menstruation and heals wounds. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Lugru Marpo, Purple Wood-Betony (Pedicularis megalantha)*- grows in Bhutan in clears in Fir and scrub, shrubberies, grassy alpine hillsides and common in wetter land at 2440-4420 m. Aerial parts used. Anti-dote (anti-poison) and cures intestinal disorders. _{Phurpa Wangchuck}

De-lang, Demon Ox Betony (Pedicularis siphonantha)*- name means Demon Ox. _{Drg. Jamyang} Grows in Bhutan in Fir forests, Rhododendron scrub, damp alpine meadows and sedge moorland at 3200-4270 m. Aerial parts used. Anti-dote (anti-poison), anti-diarrheal and febrifuge. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Tok-Bashaka "Red" (Phlogacanthus thyrsiformis)- low altitude flowers, smaller stem. Same use as other Bashaka (such as Malabar nut, Justicia adhatoda). Allays blood, liver, and khris-pa/bile disorders. Whole plant used _{Purpha Wangchuck} Stem, flower, and fruit used. Relieves liver disease/ khris-pa diseases, high blood pressure associated with headache. Aboveground parts, not root, used. _{Drg Sangay}

Lookmurr, Tibetan: Lug-mur Chu-bzang, German: Brandkraut aus Chubzang, English: Wickwee from Chubzang (Phlomis kawaguchi)*- root is used. _{Drg. Tendrel Wangdi} Good for cough & cold, runny nose _{Drg. Jamyang} Also used for lung infection. _{Drg. Tendrel Wangdi} Alleviates fever of the chest and common colds _{http://www.thangka.de/Gallery-3/Medical/8-27/Medic27-2.htm#1}

Ta-puck (Phlomis rotata)*- grows in Bhutan on open rocky slopes, screes and sometimes amongst scrub at 3660-5000 m. Aerial parts used. Strengthens broken bones, improves stiffness caused by nervous disorders, and reduces pain caused by injuries in tendons. _{Phurpa Wangchuck}

Pah-wu Karpo, Indian Pokeweed (Phytolacca acinosa)- grows in Bhutan in sunny edges, woodlands and open fields at 2000-2500 m. Roots used. Analgesic (painkiller), anti-dote (anti-poison) and useful for cough and cold. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Taram, Taram Naram, Himalayan Plantain (Plantago depressa)*- grows in Bhutan in open slopes, marshes and shrubberies at 3500-4500 m. Whole plant used. Useful for treating diarrhea. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Tse, mei li leng zi qin in China (Pleurospermum amabile)- grows in screes and exposed alpine turf at 3950-4700 m. Aerial parts used. Anti-dote (anti-poison), febrifuge and useful for indigestion. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Yel-mo-sé, Himalayan Mayapple (Podophyllum hexandrum)- grows on open mountain slopes and shady coniferous forests at 3100-4400 m. Seeds used. Assuages female gynecological problems, paralysis, blood and kidney disorders. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Ju-setma (Polygala sibirica)*- tiny red bean-like leaves. Root, leaf, stem, flower, and fruits are used. Used for edema (swelling of water between skin and bones), general wounds, used for rabies/poison from dog-bite. _{Drg Sangay}

Rané, Whorled Solomon's Seal (Polygonatum verticillatum)- grows in Bhutan in forests, shrubberies, and on open slopes at 3500-4800 m. Rhizomes (roots) used. Tonic, rejuvenator, aphrodisiac, aperitive (stimulating the appetite), carminative (relieves flatulence; expels air from the body), anthelmintic (anti-parasitic worm/helminth), anti-cephalagic (relieves headaches), growth regulator, pediatric nervine (used to calm nerves/nervous excitement and benefit the nervous system, specifically for children) and an anti-aging agent. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Pung-grum, Bistort, Red Knotweed (Polygonum macrophylla, Bistorta macrophylla)*- grows in Bhutan on dry open slopes at 3500-4200 m. Rhizomes (roots) used. Allays diarrhea, stomach pain and dysentery (disease of the intestine characterized by frequent bloody and mucous stools). _{Phurpa Wangchuck}

Nyalo chok, English: Himalayan Knotweed, Cultivated Knotweed (Polygonum polystachum)- leaf, stem, flower are used. Found above 3,000 m-- below this it's the inferior species Nyalo mempa. Small intestine and large intestine disease. Bile/khris-pa problems and intestinal problems, and bladder problems, som-sey, 6 organs disease/lower body-- caused by heat, lower stomach pain. _{Drg. Sangay}

Dumbo Reril, Chinese: Mi Lin Er Jue, English: a type of fern (Polystichum squarrosum, Aspidium squarrosum, Aspidium brachypterum Polystichum apicisterile, Polystichum brachypterum, Polystichum integripinnulum)- One of three types of low altitude ferns along with Sumo Reril and Bejó Reril/Bejang Reril. Creeping stem/root aboveground is used. Dumbo Reril is used for meat-caused food poisoning, general poisoning. _{Drg. Sangay}

Dóma, Silverweed, Silver Cinquefoil (Potentilla anserina) - grows in Bhutan on open hillsides and in Fir forests at 3700-4300 m. Roots used. Allays dysentery (disease of the intestine characterized by frequent bloody and mucous stools). _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Pen-ma Nakpo, Shrubby Cinquefoil (Potentilla arbuscula, Potentilla fruticosa, Potentilla ribui)- grows on rocky hillsides and among Juniper scrub at 3050-4100 m. Aerial parts used. Useful for cough and cold. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Singe barma, English: a type of Potentilla or Cinquefoil (Potentilla fulgens)*- aboveground parts used, for mainly blood problem and bile/khris-pa, detoxifying, stops internal bleeding _{Drg. Tendrel Wangdi} Considered antiparasitic, root peel/root bark extract in ethanol alcohol is antihelminthic, used against intestinal parasites; plant extract also reported to have anti-diabetic and antidioxidant properties _{https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3081729/}

Shangdil serpo, Sikkim Primrose, Sikkim Cowslip (Primula sikkimensis)*- grows in Bhutan in boggy and bushy ground, stream sides, open alpine meadows and among Willow and Rhododendron scrub at 3700-4600 m. Aerial parts used. Febrifuge, anti-diarrheal (children) and useful for cardio-vascular disorders. _{Phurpa Wangchuck}

Pang-tsi-do-oh, chi ye yi shou hua in China (Pterocephalus hookeri)- grows in Bhutan on open slopes in drier areas at 3800-4200 m. Whole plant used. Anti-dote (anti-poison) and allays cold and cough, and chronic inflammation. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Ga tsha, Chet-sa (which means "tongue burn") (Ranunculus brotherusi, R. affinis, Ranunculus succarinii) *- grows in Bhutan in damp clearings in Spruce, Hemlock and Fir forests, in alpine meadows and scrub at 2560-4570 m. Aerial parts used. Anti-septic (inhibits the growth and development of microorganisms but does not necessarily kill them; can be applied to living tissue, often to prevent infection), anti-pyretic (anti-fever) and heals wounds and pus. _{Purpha Wangchuck} Aboveground parts used. Used for loss of digestive heat in stomach, will increase digestive heat, if you eat. Not poisonous, you can eat the leaves. Also used for gallstones, chronic wounds/infections, blocked nerves circulation. _{Drg Sangay}

Chu-rup Belak, Frog Hand (Ranunculus tricuspis, R. cymbalariae, Helerpestes tricuspis)*- grows in Bhutan in margins of shallow pools and marshes at 3300-4400 m. Whole plant used. Relieves nerve pain and used as anti-pyretic (anti-fever). Like other members of buttercup family, it's poisonous. _{Phurpa Wangchuck}

Chu-tsa, Rhubarb (Rheum astrale, R. emodi)*- grows in Bhutan on open and mountain slopes at 2600-4200 m. Roots used. Carminative (relieving flatulence; expels air from the body), aperient (used to relieve constipation), cathartic (accelerates defecation, unlike a laxative which eases or softens defecation), anti-edema, and purgative (medicine which purges or causes undue and profuse evacuation from bowel). Useful for indigestion, wounds, and g.nan-tshad (sepsis with fever, swelling, inflammation and pain; sepsis is also called "blood poisoning" and is the body's life-threatening response to a severe infection in which the immune system triggers an inflammatory response throughout the body, which can damage organs or cause death). _{Phurpa Wangchuck} One can chew on the tasty/sour stems to relieve thirst when hiking _{Drg. Jamyang.}

Chuker mehto, Noble Rhubarb (Rheum nobile)*- grows in Bhutan on rocky hillsides at 4000-4600 m. Leaves and flowers used. Laxative, diuretic, anti-emetic (helps control nausea) _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhang}. Useful for swelling and sensation of fullness in the abdominal area and helps retain body fluid. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Se-lo-marrpo, Rhodiola (Rhodiola crenulata)- grows in Bhutan on cliffs, rocky slopes and screes with patched herbaceous vegetation at 4500-4800 m. Rots used. Allays glo-tshad (lung disorders with fever, cough, breathlessness, simultaneous chest and back pain, dizziness, and difficulty speaking), skin diseases (demulcent), and bad breath. Anti-fever and strengthens the lung. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Balú (general name), Dalí (name of flower), Balú karpo, Dwarf Rhododendron (Rhododendron anthropogon)*- grows in Bhutan on open hillsides, rocky slopes, cliff ledges and dwarf Rhododendron scrub above tree line at 3650-4700 m. Flowers used. Heals body and face swelling caused by Phlegm/Bad-kan disorders (bad-d.kan-cha-bab). Helps regain health of weak person. _{Purpha Wangchuck} Leaf and flower used. Used for incense sticks. Used for bad-kan/phlegm disease caused by heat & cold mixed. Used as an ingredient (one of the 5 medicinal herbs) in herbal bath. _{Drg Sangay}

Balú nakpo, Bristly Rhododendron (Rhododendron setosum)- grows in Bhutan in open alpine pasture and highland valleys at 2700-4800 m. Leaves used. Allays grang-ba (disorder associated with the symptoms like backache, abdominal pain, difficulty in passing urine, swelling of testicles and vaginal discharge) and gag-lhog (laryngitis). Used as an ingredient in incense products that pacify gods and deities. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Tak-ma-shing, Rosy Rhododendron (Rhododendron glaucophyllum)- grows in Bhutan in understory of Conifer forest at 3000-3800 m. Leaves are used. Hemostatic (any agent which arrests or restrains bleeding) and neutralizer. Also used as ingredient in incense products that pacify gods and deities. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Tama mehto (Rhododendron przewalskii)*- flower is used. Used for cough related to lung infection, abscess. _{Drg Sangay}

Sé-wé mehto, Silky Rose (Rosa sericea)- grows in Bhutan on open dry hill slopes at 1200-3800 m. Flowers used. Useful for bile/khris-pa and air/rlung related disorders. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Segut, Suget, Seugeut, Himalayan Rose (Rosa macrophylla)*- also a food for bears. _{Drg. Tendrel Wangdi} Grows in Bhutan on hillsides and forest margins at 2100-4200 m. Fruits used. Anti-dote (anti-poison). Relieves constipation, cough and cold and useful for liver and bile/khris-pa disorders, and heals abscess (buildup of pus under the skin, usually red/swollen, caused by body's reaction to fever-inducing invaders by disintegrating tissues). _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Kenda Kari, Two-flowered Raspberry (Rubus biflorus)*- grows in clearings of coniferous and blue pine forests, and in abandoned lands at 2300-3500 m. Stem without bark is used. Febrifuge and revitalizer. Also useful for reducing blood pressure, common cold, and pleural effusion (water on the lungs; excess fluid builds around the lungs between the layers of pleura, or membranes that line the lungs and the chest cavity to lubricate and facilitate breathing). _{Purpha Wangchuck} The berries are edible. _{Drg. Jamyang}

Ga-shó, English: Curly Dock, Yellow Dock (Rumex crispus)*- root is used. Used for meat poisoning, skin diseases, and bone diseases caused by heat _{Drg Sangay} Low altitude. _{Olivia Lewis}

Shamáng, Shomang, English: Himalayan Dock (Rumex nepalensis)*- root is used. _{Drg. Tendrel Wangdi} Mostly/officially used for wounds, wounds caused by heat, locally used in villages for bone fracture. _{Drg. Jamyang}

Lang-ma-shín (Salix sclerophylloides)* A tree. Inner bark used. Benefits general gynecological problem. Fever/inflammation. _{Drg. Tendrel Wangdi}

Gypsy Chen-mo, type of Sage (Salvia castanea)*- grows on open slopes and dry areas at 1500-4200 m. Aerial parts used. Useful for mouth ulcer, toothache, hypo-tension (low blood pressure) and liver disorders. It is depurative (purifying/detoxifying) and attenuant (thins or dilutes or increases the fluidity of the blood or other secretion) agent. _{Phurpa Wangchuck}

Keun-pa gop-ke, Ken-pa gop-ké (Saussurea bodinieri, Saussurea pachyneura, Saussurea kunthiana var. caulescens, Saussurea kunthiana var. major, Saussurea sikangensis)*- whole plant is used. Used for bleeding, bleeding caused by heat, nerve problems caused by heat, wounds and poison _{Drg Sangay}

Jah-géh Súkpa, Snowball plant (Saussurea gossypiphora)- grows in Bhutan on screes and open stony places at 3950-5000 m. Aerial parts used. Analgesic (painkiller) and useful for blood and liver disorders. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Roo-tá, Kuth root, Costus, a type of Thistle (Saussurea lappa, S. castus)- grows in Bhutan in cultivated areas. Root used. Anti-hypertensive (anti-high blood pressure), anti-flatulence, anti-tussive (cough suppressant), anti-dysenteric (disease of the intestine characterized by frequent bloody and mucous stools), antiseptic (inhibits the growth and development of microorganisms but does not necessarily kill them; can be applied to living tissue, often to prevent infection). Allays oesophagitis (inflammation of the esophagus), numbness, skran-nad (formation of pebble-like mass within the body such as: pebble-like mass resulting from blood formation, pebble-like mass or calculus formed in the liver due to impure blood coagulation, pebble-like mass or air bubbles formated at the junction of stomach and intestine, pebble-like mass or calculus formed in the uterus due to incomplete expulsion of placenta and delivery residues, pebble-like mass or calculus formed in the intestine a s a result of spill over bile, and pebble-like mass or calculus formed in duodenum/upper intestine and stomach due to parasites/worms), dysphoria (restlessness) and dyspepsia (indigestion). _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Zadook nakpo, Black Zadook, Brahma Kamal (Saussurea obvallat)- grows in Bhutan on open hill slopes and shrubs at 4200-4600 m. Leaves, stems, flowers and seeds used. Relieves pain, heals sores and wounds, and assuages epilepsy and paralysis. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Sangtik, Saxifrage (Saxifraga moorcraftiana)- grows among rocks and boulders at 4100-4400 m. Whole plant used. Anti-pyretic (anti-fever) and useful in bile/khris-pa disorders. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Sertík, Himalayan Saxifrage (Saxifraga parnassiflora, Saxifraga sphaeradena)- grows in Bhutan in cliff ledges and open grassy banks at 3050-4200 m. Whole plant used. Heals wounds and alleviates cough and cold, and bile/khris-pa disorders including jaundice. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Tik-ta, Chinese: Xiao San Hu Er Cao (Saxifraga umbellulata), - Aboveground parts used. Grows at 4590 m, used for liver bile/khris-pa, wounds caused by heat _{Medicinal Flora of Bhutan} "Songdi" is Saxifraga umbellulata var. pectinata). _{https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23717977}

Tungtom, pronounced Tongue-Tome (Scopolia lurida, S. stramonifolia, Anisodus luridus, Physalis stramonifolia)*-- poisonous. Grows in Bhutan in wasteland and cultivated areas at 2500-4200 m. Seeds used. Anthelmintic (anti-parasitic worm/helminth; destroys or expels them), anti-infective and useful for sinusitis and colic. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Tsen au tsi, Chinese: Duo Jing Jing Tian, English: a type of Stonecrop (Sedum multicaule)*- tiny little leaves, rock crawling, pink flowers. Root, leaf, and fruit used. Cough & cold caused by bacteria/virus, causing a fever. _{Drg. Tendrel Wangdi}

Bumpo, aka Buhm-poh, Milk Parsley (Selinum wallichianum)*- grows in open well-drained rough grassland, sides of paths/tracks/roads, coniferous forest clearings and scrubland at 2300-4000 m. Aerial parts used. Anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor. _{Purpha Wangchuck} Similar to Ra-sook, Campion (Silene gonosperma), but S. gonosperma is much higher in altitude. _{Drg. Tendrel Wangdi}

Ra-sook, Angled-seed Campion (Silene gonosperma)- grows in open slopes, rock crevices and gravelly grounds at 3400-4700 m. Aerial parts used. Clears ear blockage and removes dirt from the skin. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Tang-kin Nakpo, Black Tang-kin, zhou ban qin in China (Sinolimprichtia alpina)- grows in Bhutan on alpine grassy slopes, sandy areas, screes and rock crevices at 3300-5000 m. Roots used. Anti-dote (anti-poison) and useful for complicated case of phlegm (Bad-kan) and air (rLung) disorders. It also relieves fever arising from heart disorders. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Ser-gong Serpo, Yellow Ser-Gong; it is in the Dandelion tribe (Soroseris hookeriana, Crepis glomerita)- grows among stony slopes and screes at 3650-4720 m. Aerial parts used. Relieves fever due to poisoning, heals bone fracture, and prevents infection and sepsis ("blood poisoning", the body's life-threatening response to a severe infection in which the immune system triggers an inflammatory response throughout the body, which can damage organs or cause death). _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Khen-pa, Artemesia, Sangzey karchung, Alpine Tansy (Tanacetum nubigenum, Ajania nubigena)*- grows in Bhutan on stony slopes and sandy ground at 3600-4800 m. Aboveground parts used. Allays abscess (buildup of pus under the skin, usually red/swollen, caused by body's reaction to fever-inducing invaders by disintegrating tissues), tumor and kidney related disorders. It is vulnerary (wound healing), expectorant (something that helps loosen mucus so you can cough it up; promotes the removal of phlegm, mucus and catarrhal matter from the lungs), styptic (stops bleeding when applied to a wound) and anti-epistaxis (anti-nosebleeds). _{Phurpa Wangchuck} Used for abscess, boil, haemorrhage, and kidney diseases _{Medicinal Flora of Bhutan}

Khur-mong, Dandelion (Taraxacum eriopodum, Taraxacum officinalis var. eriopodum, maybe T. tibeticum)*- grows in Bhutan on pastureland and grassy banks at 3000-4250 m. Whole plant used. Detoxifier. Febrifuge for disorders affecting stomach. _{Phurpa Wangchuck}

Ngo-tin, Chakchoo, Meadow Rue (Thalictrum chelidonii)*- grows in Bhutan in Fir, Juniper, and Rhododendron forests at 2500-3500 m. Aerial parts used. Anti-dote (anti-poison), anti-malarial, analgesic (painkiller), anti-pyretic (anti-fever), anti-septic (inhibits the growth and development of microorganisms but does not necessarily kill them; can be applied to living tissue, often to prevent infection) and febrifuge. Allays dug-tshad (poisoning characterized by fever and pain in all parts of body) and rnog-tshad (disorders characterized by sweating, fever, and bleeding from nose). _{Phurpa Wangchuck}

Day-ga, Dega, Field Pennycress (Thlaspi arvense)- grows in Bhutan on fields and near houses at 2200-4000 m. Aboveground parts used. Alleviates inflammation in the lung and kidney and reduces the undesirable accumulated fluids in the body joints. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Shingee Serjé/Mullein (Verbascum thapsus)*- grows in Bhutan on stony slopes, sandy soil, dry often abandoned fields, and clearings in Pinus wallichiana forests at 1800-4000 m. Seeds used. Useful for kidney disorders and clears blockage of urinary tract. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

Dumnak Dumchi, Doomnak Doom-thi, Himalayan Speedwell (Veronica cephaloides, V. ciliata subsp. cephaloides)*- grows in Bhutan on open grassland at 4000-4600 m. Whole plant used. Haemostatic (any agent which arrests or restrains bleeding) and febrifuge for rma-tshad (chronic wound with fever). Heals wounds and regenerates cells. _{Phurpa Wangchuck}

Ngo-men domchi, Chinese: Chang Guo Po Po Na, English: a type of Speedwell

(Veronica ciliata)- aboveground part used. Used for chronic blood-related diseases, electric shock feeling in the upper body. _{Drg Sangay} Used for hepatitis (liver inflammation), cholecystitis (gallbladder inflammation), rheumatism (disease marked by inflammation and pain in the joints, muscles, or fibroid tissues), and urticaria (skin rash or hives) _{https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ecam/2017/6106572/}

Ngo-dook Moh-nyung, in the Milkweed/Dogbane family (Vincetoxicum canescens, Asclepias canescens, Cynanchum canescens, Cynanchum glaucum, Vincetoxicum glaucum)- grows in Bhutan on open dry habitats in varied situations from pine woodland to grassland, roadsides, and river banks at 2100-3600 m. Fruits used. Febrifuge for bile/khris-pa disorders, anthelmintic (anti-parasitic worm/helminth; destroys or expels them), and useful for dysentery (disease of the intestine characterized by frequent bloody and mucous stools) and throat swelling. _{Purpha Wangchuck}

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Low Altitude Medicinal Plants (Can Only be Found Below 3,500 m): 90 total

Dzongkha Name, Musk Mallow, Tibetan: Gya-soma-raza, Hindi: Kasturi dana/Latakasturi/Mushkdana (Abelmoschus maschatus, Hibiscus abelmoschus)-- grows in Nepal, China, and Southern India at 200-1500 m. seeds are used. The pods enclosing seeds are picked upon maturation, the pods are discarded and seeds are properly dried. Taste according to traditional Tibetan system of taste is "hot" to "bitter", and "light", "coarse", and "dry". Used to treat arthritis, swelling and pain of the joints due to lymph fluid and all lymphatic related cases, leprosy, eczema (a group of diseases causing inflammation of the skin characterized by itchiness, red skin and a rash), pimples, itching of skin and helps to eliminate harmful micro-organisms. Combined with other ingredients, it treats diffused serous fluid (yellow-tinged fluid that fills body cavities) in the skin, bone weakness, loss of hair and baldness caused due to contagious fever. _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhang}

Dzongkha Name, Tibetan Name, Rosary Pea, Jequirity, Crab's Eye (Abrus precatorius)- deadly poisonous. part used. Altitude.

Dzongkha Name, Catechu tree, Tibetan: Som-seng-deng, Hindi: Khair, Khadir, Khaira, Katha (Acacia catechu, Senegalia catechu, Mimosa catechu, Accacia catechuoides)-- grows in China, India, Tibet, and the Indian Ocean area at less than 1200 m. The stems and branches are collected either in spring (April-June) or autumn. After removing the external bark, the inner reddish brown wood is prepared into concentrated decoctions* and used in medicine. The taste according to traditional Tibetan system of taste is "bitter" to "astringent", and "cool" to "dry". The concentrated decoction is used to treat serous fluid (yellow-tinged fluid filling body cavities) disorders, blood related diseases and especially leprosy. The wood can also be used directly in the external heat application therapies in Tibetan medicine. _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhang} The branches are cut to feed goats and sometimes cattle, and the heartwood extract is added to give red color and flavor to doma or paan (chewed betel leaf, areca nut, and lime paste mixture)._{Wikipedia, Senegalia catechu, Tibetan Medicinal Plants handbook} Blood building (nutritive) and depurative (purifying/detoxifying) for impure blood and blood related disorders. Heals rheumatism (disorder of the connective tissue structures especially the joints characterized by pain, stiffness or limitation of motion) by drying out the chu-ser-g nag-po (excess serous fluid disease, diseases related to the serous fluids (black) or lymphatic fluids (white), such as edema)) affecting the body. Alleviates leprosy. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum} *concentrated decoctions are made by coarsely cutting the plants, drying a short period, and boiling in water in a 3:2 ratio-- the heating process is continued until all the juices are extracted from the plants; later the plants are removed and the remaining mixture is gradually heated until it turns into a thick extract called a concentrated decoction _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhan}

Dzongkha Name, Tibetan Name, Violet Monkshood (Aconitum violaceum)- Altitude. tubers used. Anti-inflammatory and febrifuge. Also treats snake and scorpion bites. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Dzongkha Name, Sweetfag, Calamus, Tibetan: Shudag-nagpo, Hindi: Bach, Gorbach (Acorus calamus)- semi-aquatic. Altitude 200-1800 m. The rhizomes (roots) are collected when the medicinal potency of the plant descends into the rhizomes around the months of September to October. After collection, rhizomes are cleaned by removing the hairs is used. The taste is considered hot to bitter, the quality is light, coarse and warm. Treats indigestion, diptheria (a serious bacterial infection affecting the mucous membranes of the throat and nose causing a thick grey coating, that is preventable by a vaccine), body swelling, sever wounds, chuser diseases (diseases related to the serous fluids (black) or lymphatic fluids (white), such as edema). Assists in restoring digestive heat and treating excess rlung/wind and inflammation. _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhang} Eupeptic (improves digestion) and allays indigestion. Generates bodily heat and heals gag-lhog (laryngitis). _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Dzongkha Name, Sweet Grass, Tibetan: Shudag-karpo, Tamil: Vasaka, Hindi: Bach, Saphed Vacha (Acorus gramineus)- the rhizomes (roots) are used. The taste is considered sweet to bitter, and the quality is cool, heavy and light. Used as a rejuvenating agent, improving intelligent, and treating problems due to incompatible food and poor appetite. Grows at altitudes of 1500-2500 m. Rhizomes collected between August and September and cleaned, cut into pieces, and dried in a cool place. _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhang}

Malabar Nut, Bhutanese/Dzongkha: Tok-Bashaka "White", Tibetan: Ba-sha-ka (woody type), Hindi: Adalsa, Adusa, Arusha, Bansa Basuti (Adhatoda vasica, Justicia adhatoda)- flowers and leaves used. Taste is bitter, quality is cool. Treats increase in impure blood, fever associated with blood, fever associated with khris-pa/bile disorders a well as fever of the liver etc. May also prove effective in treating throat or vocal problems related to blood and fever problems, thereby theoretically producing a better/sweeter voice. Grows at an altitude of 500-1600 m in India and the lower Himalayan range. _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhang} Low altitude flowers, smaller stem than other similar types of Bashaka. Same use as other Bashaka. Allays blood, liver, and khris-pa/bile disorders. _{Purpha Wangchuck} Stem, flower, and fruit used. Relieves liver disease/ khris-pa diseases, high blood pressure associated with headache. Aboveground parts, not root, used. _{Drg Sangay}

Hyssop, Wrinkle Giant Hyssop, Tibetan: Zadra-ahm-phagdug (Agastache rugosus)- leaves stems, flowers, and fruits collected during August. Altitude. Grows on slopes, roadsides, hills and below rocks and in moist shady places. Taste is bitter to astringent; quality is cool and coarse. Above ground parts used to treat dropsy (edema); roots are used in preparation of incense sticks combined with other ingredients. _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhang}

Dzongkha Name, Tibetan Name, Sunset Muskmallow, Sunset Hibiscus, Sunset Manihot (Albemoschus manihot)- part used. Usefulness.

Onion, Tibetan: Tsong, Hindi: Piyas, Pyaz (Allium cepa)- whole plant collected in September and dried. Taste is hot, quality is warm. Helps to treat bad-rlung (combination of bad-kan/phlegm and rlung/wind) disorders. Used to generate body heat, especially digestive heat. Assists in proper digestion and increases appetite and sleep. Helps to improve sexual vitality and treat filariasis, and gynecological related disorders. _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhang}

Garlic, Dzongkha Name, Tibetan: Gog-pa, Gog-kya, Hindi: Lahasun, Lasan (Allium sativum)- bulb (root) used. Whole plant collected in July, or bulbs in September. Cures bad-rlung (combination of badkan/phlegm and rlung/wind) and anti-coagulant. Carminative (relieves flatulence; expels air from the body) and cardiac tonic. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum} Taste is hot and sweet, quality is warm, sharp and heavy. Treats all kind of rlung imbalance, insomnia, loss of appetite (anorexia), leprosy, chuser (diseases related to the serous fluids (black) or lymphatic fluids (white), such as edema), dermatological diseases including vitiligo, hair loss, piles or hemorrhoids, common cold, poison, intestinal worms and unriped fever. Assists in treating gynecological diseases and feet affected with filariasis. Helps to increase sexual power. Fresh garlic, applied as a poultice rather than dry, is also an adhesive and antiseptic. Grows at altitudes below 3900 m. _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhang}

Hollyhock, Tibetan: Pho-cham-hallo-karpo, Hindi: Gul, Gulkhaira (Althaea rosa)- flowers and roots used. Taste: sweet, quality: cool and sharp. Flowers used in treating inflammation in the urinary tract and also vaginal discharge (white and red discharge). Roots are used to treat anorexia and wasting. Flowers are picked during flowering season and roots collected and washed in autumn. _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhang}

Hollyhock, Tibetan: Halo-marpo, Hindi: Gul, Gulkheru (Althaea rosea)- flowers and roots used. Taste is sweet, quality cool and sharp. Flowers used in treating inflammation in the urinary tract and also vaginal discharge (white and red discharge), as well as premature ejaculation and spermatorrhea. Roots are used to treat anorexia and wasting. Flowers are picked during flowering season and roots collected and washed in autumn. _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhang}

Black Cardamom, Dzongkha Name, Tibetan Name (Amomum subulatum)- restores stomach heat and aids in digestion. Optimizes the temperature of spleen in case of grang-ba (disorder associated with the symptoms like backache, abdominal pain, difficulty in passing urine, swelling of testicles and vaginal discharge). _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Dzongkha Name, Tibetan Name, Griffithii Dutchman's Pipe (Aristolochia griffithii)- part used.

Asparagus, Tibetan: Ney-shing, Hindi: Hazarmuli, Safed musli, Satavari (Asparagus adscendens)- roots used, collected in September, and soon after cleaning and drying prepared into concentrated decoctions; this decoction is especially effective in treating facial blemishes and chuser (diseases related to the serous fluids (black) or lymphatic fluids (white), such as edema) diseases. Taste is sweet, bitter, astringent and quality light, warm, dry. Grows at an altitude of up to 1700 m. Helps to prolong life, restore bodily strength and kidney heat. Recommended for pain at the kidney and lumbar region, diabetes, itchy skin diseases and chronic hidden fever (fever suppressed or hidden under the influence of badkan/phlegm or rlung/wind, showing physical signs of coldness). *concentrated decoctions are made by coarsely cutting the plants, drying a short period, and boiling in water in a 3:2 ratio-- the heating process is continued until all the juices are extracted from the plants; later the plants are removed and the remaining mixture is gradually heated until it turns into a thick extract called a concentrated decoction _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhan Tsering Dorjee Dekhang}

Shatavari (Indian name), Asparagus, Tibetan, (Asparagus racemosus)- use.

Asparagus, Tibetan: Ney-shing, Hindi: Satavari, Satavar, Safed musli, Hazarmuli (Asparagus adscendens)- roots are used, collected in September and the outer skin of the roots discarded, then dried; however soon after collected and cleaning, it should be prepared into a concentrated decoction.* Taste is sweet, bitter, and astringent; quality is light, warm, and dry. Helps to prolong life, restore bodily strength and kidney heat. It is also recommended for pain at the kidney and lumbar region. *concentrated decoctions are made by coarsely cutting the plants, drying a short period, and boiling in water in a 3:2 ratio-- the heating process is continued until all the juices are extracted from the plants; later the plants are removed and the remaining mixture is gradually heated until it turns into a thick extract called a concentrated decoction _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhang}

Dzongkha Name, Tibetan Name, rare type of Astragalus (Astragalus tanguticus)- part used. endangered

Dzongkha Name, Tibetan Name, Herald's Trumpet (Beaumonia grandiflora)- seeds are used. Anthelmintic (anti-parasitic worm/helminth; destroys or expels them) and vermifuge (expels worms). Refrigerant (medicine having cooling properties or that lowers bodily temperature) for m.khris-tshad (khris-pa/bile disorders associated with fever, pain, and irregular urination) and tshad-khru (diarrhea or dysentery; dysentery being a disease of the intestine characterized by frequent bloody and mucous stools). Anti-toxin (any substance that neutralizes a given toxin) and alleviates dug-nad (poisoning). _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Red Silk-Cotton, Red Cotton Tree, Cotton Tree, Tibetan: Pema-gaesar, Hindi: Ragatsemal, Semal, Semul (Bombax ceiba, Bombax malabaricum, Salmalia malabarica)- flowers used, collected around February then dried in a cool place. Taste is astringent, quality is cool and coarse. _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhang} Cardiac-tonic and febrifuge for heart disorders. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum} Used to treat all types of fever related with lungs, liver and heart. It is also used for treating khris-pa/bile, disorders as well as diarrhea. Flowers and calyxes eaten as a vegetable; cotton from the seed pods is used to stuff pillows and mattresses; the seeds make a nourishing food for cattle. Grows in the sub-Himalayan area up to 1500 m in altitude. _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhang}

Chinese Mustard, Brown Mustard, Black Mustard Seed, Indian Mustard, Tibetan: Pae-kha, Yung-nag, Hindi: Rai, Sarso (Brassica juncea)- seeds and seed oil used, seeds collected soon after maturity then dried. Taste is hot, quality is heavy and hot. Helps to treat cold disorders and highly aggravated rlung/wind, but may aggravate blood and khris-pa/bile disorders. Seeds are used for cooking oil or as a spice.

Turnip, Tibetan: Nyung-ma, Hindi name: Shalfam (Brassica rapa rapifera)- seeds and roots used. Harvested from a place more exposed toward the northern side, and the collected roots slices and prepared in a concentrated decoction (made by coarsely cutting the plants, drying a short period, and boiling in water in a 3:2 ratio-- the heating process is continued until all the juices are extracted from the plants; later the plants are removed and the remaining mixture is gradually heated until it turns into a thick extract called a concentrated decoction). They grow in the spring or fall. Taste is sweet; quality is hot, warming to oily. Used as an antidote to all types of poisoning; helps to gather diffused poison within the body and eliminate the located poison. Also used to restore vitality. _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhang}

Bhutan Butterfly Bush, Dzongkha Name, Tibetan Name (Buddleja bhutanica)- part used. dyspepsia (indigestion), nervine (used to calm nerves/nervous excitement and benefit the nervous system) and regenerates nerves. It is useful for preparing yeast to brew alcohol. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Lata Palash, Dzongkha Name, Tibetan Name (Butea parviflora, Spatholobus roxburghii, Spatholobus parviflorus- part used. anthelmintic (gets rid of parasitic helminth worms; destroys or expels them), vermifuge (expels parasitic worms), and anti-bacterial. Eupeptic (good for digestion) and optimize stomach heat for good digestion. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Dzongkha Name, Tibetan Name, English Name (Caesalpinia bounduc, Caesalpinia bounducella)- "stones" used, allays kidney disorders. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Dzongkha Name, Tibetan Name, English Name (Canarium strictum)- part used. Excellent medicine for chu-ser-nad (diseases of the serous fluid: the yellow, transparent liquid found in body cavities; for example, edema is a buildup of serous fluid; diseases related to the serous fluids (black) or lymphatic fluids (white)). Allays rlung-nad (rlung/wind disorders characterized by headache, yawning, nausea, blurred vision, dizziness and shivering) and rlig-rlugs (genital disease: hydrocele or swelling in the scrotum due to inflammation or injury). _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Cannabis, Marijuana, Hemp, Tibetan: soma-nagpo, Hindi: bang, charas, ganja (Cannabis sativa)- seeds used, collected around September and dried. Taste is sweet to hot, quality is warm and oily. Helps to formulate remedies for rejuvenation, penile erection and to clear vision. In some countries, oil from the seeds and fibers from the stem are used to make sacks, ropes, and shoes. Used to treat constipation and rlung/wind diseases. Grows at an altitude below 3800 m. _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhang}

Chili Pepper, Chili, Capsicum, Tibetan: Sirban, Hindi: Hari mirch, Lalmirch (Capsicum frutescens)- fruit is used. Fruits are collected at maturity and dried. Taste is hot. Quality is coarse, warm and light. The fruit restores physical strength, digestive heat, body temperature and can also be used to treat accumulation of fluid in the body, dropsy (edema), piles (hemorrhoids), harmful micro-organisms, leprosy, as well as to treat bad-kan/phlegm and rlung/wind related growths or tumors. _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhang}

Safflower, Tibetan: Doom-gurgum, Hindi: Barre, Kusum, Kusumba (Carthamus tinctorius)- flower is used. Cardiac-tonic, liver-tonic, styptic (stops bleeding when applied to a wound) and haemostatic (stop bleeding, keeping blood in a damaged blood vessel, with coagulation). It is also nerves constrictor. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum} Flowers collected during the flowering season, and after discarding the sepals the petals are dried in a cool place and stored in an airtight container so they don't lose their scent. Can be used to replace Saffron (Crocus sativus) because of similar therapeutic properties. Taste is sweet to slightly bitter, quality is cool, blunt and smooth. Used for all types of liver disease, ruptured capillaries, anemia and high blood pressure. _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhang}

Sickle Pod, Sickle Senna, Tibetan: Thelkar-dorje, Hindi: Chaksu, Chakunda, Panevar (Cassia tora)- seeds used, collected between Sept-Oct. and then dried in a clean environment. Taste is slightly bitter to astringent, and quality is cool, coarse and dry. Used for treating all types of dermatological diseases, chuser diseases (diseases related to the serous fluids (black) or lymphatic fluids (white), such as edema), itching, eczema, stroke, besides it is used as rejuvenator and to increase sexual power. Grows from 1300-1500 m. _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhang}

Golden Shower Tree, Indian laburnum, Tibetan: Dong-gha, Hindi: Amaltas, Kanyar, Kilvali, Kirala, Sinar (Cassia fistula)- fruits used, the fully ripened pod is collecting and crushed (including the seeds) into pieces to be prepared into a concentrated decoction-- by coarsely cutting the plants, drying a short period, and boiling in water in a 3:2 ratio, with the heating process continued until all the juices are extracted from the plants; later the plants are removed and the remaining mixture is gradually heated until it turns into a thick extract-- to later use in medicine. Grows at altitudes up to 1400 m. The taste is sweet to slightly hot; the quality is heavy, cool, and oily. Used to treat liver affected by poisons and other liver diseases, khris-pa/bile, constipation, and bad-kan-smug-po (a disease involving a combination of rlung, khris-pa, and bad-kan) through purgation. Helps to subside swelling of the extremities and acts as an antidote against the effect of poisonous plants. The fruits have anthelmintic (anti-parasitic worm/helminth) properties. _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhang}

Dzongkha Name, Tibetan Name, English Name in the Ginger family (Cautleya spicata)- anti-coagulant, attenuant (thins or dilutes or increases the fluidity of the blood or other secretion), febrifuge, and cures bad-rlung (combination of badkan/phlegm and rlung/wind). _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Dzongkha Name, Tibetan Name, English Name (Choenomeles lagenaria)- febrifuge (gets rid of fever) and cures bad-tshad (badkan/phlegm with inflammation). _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Nepali Hog Plum, Dzongkha Name, Tibetan Name (Choerospondias axillaries)

Large-flowered Cinnamon, Dzongkha Name, Tibetan Name (Cinnamomum grandiflorum)

Cinnamon, Dzongkha Name, Tibetan Name (Cinnamomum impressinervium)- dried bark/the spice known as "Cinnamon" used. Anti-diarrheal, carminative (relieving flatulence; expels air from the body), restores stomach heat and heals flatulence. Also drains out pus resulting from lung infection (glo-rnag). _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Coriander, Tibetan: Woo-soo, Hindi: Dhaniya, Hara dhaniya (Coriandrum sativum)- seeds used, collected on maturity. Treats stomach problems, rise of fever associated with badkan/phlegm, stomach cramps, indigestion, loss of appetite, thirstiness, unriped pimples, and especially badkan-mugpo (a disease characterized by a combination of rlung/wind, khris-pa/bile, and bad-kan/phlegm). It also helps to treat poisoning, opthalmic (eye-related) diseases and rlung/wind disorders associated with fever. _{Tsering Dorjee Dekhang} Lithontriptic (used to dissolve or destroy bladder or kidney stones, or other concretions in the body) and disintegrates pebble like mass formed in the stomach as a result of defective bad-kan/phlegm. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum} Taste is

Turmeric, Curcuma, Dzongkha Name, Tibetan Name (Curcuma longa)

Lotus, Dzongkha Name, Tibetan Name (Diospyros lotus)- part used. febrifuge, astringent and cholagogue (stimulates the flow of bile from the liver). It purges excessive and defective bile from the body. Expectorant (something that helps loosen mucus so you can cough it up; promotes the removal of phlegm, mucus and catarrhal matter from the lungs) and heals glo-nad (lung disorders). _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Drynaria propingua

Erythriana aborenseens

Mock Strawberry (Fragaria indica, Duchesnea indica)

Ash (Fraxinus paxiana)

Glycyrrhiza glabra, Glycyrrhiza glandulifera- allays lung disorders, nervine (used to calm nerves/nervous excitement and benefit the nervous system) and heals nerve disorders. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Hordeum vulgare- facilitates easy and accelerates child delivery by helping in muscular contraction and child expulsion from the uterus, and also progresses un-aided bullet removal from the body. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Narrow-sepal Jaeschkeao (Jaeschkeao ligosperma)

Jatropha curcas- seeds used? Purgative (medicine which purges or causes undue and profuse evacuation from bowel) and laxative, allays constipation. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Knema tenuinervia, Knema linifolia, Myristica longifolia- heals snying-tshad (heart disorders associated with fever, drowsiness, irritability to thick warm clothes, darkening of tongue, thirsty, loss of appetite, and pain in the upper chest) and rlung-nad (rlung/wind disorders characterized by headache, yawning, nausea, blurred vision, dizziness and shivering). _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Lagenaria siceraria (Molina)

Sponge Gourd, Egyptian cucumber (Luffa aegyptiaca)

Mountain Sorrel (Oxyria digyna)

Kulatha, Indian Bean, Horse gram (Macrotyloma uniflorum, Dolichus biflorus, Dolichus uniflorus)- eating it alleviates phlegm/bad-kan and rlung/wind. It cures piles and calculus in the seminal tract. It causes rakta-pitta (a disease characterized by blood and bile). _{Dean of trad. medicine}

Millettia pachycarpa

Morus mucroura

Myristica fragrans- useful as part of a heated herbal poultice treatment on the head and temple to treat rlung disorders, including headache, dizziness, stiff limb, mental illness, rapid breathing due to rlung disorder. _{Drg. Tendrel Wangdi}

Myrsine semiserrata- anti-microbial. Restores stomach heat and improves digestion. Also heals skya-rbab (edema at the initial stage). _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Catnip, Catmint (Nepeta sp.)

Rice (Oryza sativa)- generally cooling. When new, not dried and stored for several months, it is heavy. After a year, it becomes light, dry, and easy to digest. _{Dean of trad. medicine}

Otochilius lancitabius

Black pepper (Piper nigrum)- heals bad-kan/phlegm disorders and grang-nad (disease caused by "cold" factors: like diarrhea, dysentery (disease of the intestine characterized by frequent bloody and mucous stools), kidney disease). _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Piper pedicellatum

Pea (Pisum sativum)- cures rlung/wind disorders. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Phyllanthus emblica- (seeds?) febrifuge and heals bad-m.khris (combination of badkan/phlegm and khris-pa/bile). _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum} An ingredient in the Seven Precious Herbs Remedy for cough & cold, and in the shortened version (3 Precious Herbs). _{Dean of trad. medicine}

Blond Plantain, Desert Indianwheat, Blond Psyllium (Plantago ovata)

Punica granatum

Chinese Sumac (Rhus chinensis)- fruit is used. Purgative (medicine which purges or causes undue and profuse evacuation from bowel), emetic, and appetizer (stimulates or promotes the desire for food). Allays asthma and also replenishes and strengthens lungs. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Rhus semilata

Roscoea capitata- An ingredient in the Seven Precious Herbs Remedy for cough & cold. _{Dean of trad. medicine}

Rubia manjith

Santalum album- febrifuge, expectorant (something that helps loosen mucus so you can cough it up; promotes the removal of phlegm, mucus and catarrhal matter from the lungs) and allays dry cough. Heals skin diseases if its oil is applied on the affected areas. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Soapberry (Sapindus rarak)

Selaginella involvens- leaf is used. anti-dropsy (anti-edema), heals bone fracture and allays stiffness of limbs. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Selinum vaginatum

Sesame (Sesasum indicum)-- nourishes and replenishes body. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum} Sesame seed is heavy, hot and aphrodisiac. _{Drg. Tendrel Wangdi} Heals rlung disorders. Improves spermatogenesis and oogenesis. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum} Rubbed into skin during regular massage and herbal poultice treatments. Two types, black and white. _{Drg. Jamyang}

Yellow-fruit Nightshade (Solanum xanthocarpum)- poisonous; has to be detoxified. An ingredient in the Seven Precious Herbs Remedy for cough & cold. _{Dean of trad. medicine}

Strychnine tree, Nux Vomica (Strychnos nux-vomica)- antidote (anti-poison), anti-toxin (any substance that neutralizes a given toxin) and febrifuge. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum.} Deadly.

Symplocos sumuntia

Symplocos tamosissima

Java Plum, Jambolan, Black Plum, Jamun (Syzygium cumini, Eugenia jambolana, Eugenia cumini)- replenishes kidney and heals kidney disorders. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Terminalia bellerica- cholagogue (stimulates the flow of bile from the liver) and heals bad-m.khris (combination of badkan/phlegm and khris-pa/bile) and rlung disorders. Hydragogue (a cathartic that causes copious watery discharges from the bowels; a medicine which causes free secretion from the intestinal glands and removes excess serum from the blood vessels, producing fluid or watery motions) and allays chu-ser-nag-po (excess serous fluid disease; diseases related to the serous fluids (black) or lymphatic fluids (white), such as edema). Prevents hair loss. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum} An ingredient in the Seven Precious Herbs Remedy for cough & cold, and in the shortened version (3 Precious Herbs). _{Dean of trad. medicine}

Terminalia chebula- seeds used, anti-dysenteric (disease of the intestine characterized by frequent bloody and mucous stools) and anti-diarrheal. Heals chronic lung and kidney disorders. Expectorant (something that helps loosen mucus so you can cough it up; promotes the removal of phlegm, mucus and catarrhal matter from the lungs) and allays common cold and sore throat. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum} Considered the "king of medicines", and an ingredient in the Seven Precious Herbs Remedy for cough & cold, and in the shortened version (3 Precious Herbs). _{Dean of trad. medicine}

Purple Meadow-Rue (Thalictrum reniforme)

Tinospora cordifolia- An ingredient in the Seven Precious Herbs Remedy for cough & cold. _{Dean of trad. medicine}

Tribulus terrestris- anti-diuretic. Allays strangury (a condition caused by blockage/irritation at the base of the bladder, resulting in severe pain and a strong desire to urinate, with frequent small amounts of urine expelled by straining, slow drop by drop painful discharge), arthritis, and the kidney disorders. Nourishes and replenishes kidney. Also useful for treating grang-rlung (combination of coldness and rlung). _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Cattail (Typha elephantina)- root is used, nourishes, progresses flesh growth and builds body. Improves intelligence and memory. Anti-toxin (any substance that neutralizes a given toxin) and heals gyur-dug (food poisoning). _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Black Gram, Masha, Urad Dal (Vigna mungo)- alleviates rlung/wind because it's dry and heavy, and aggravates khris-pa/bile. Promotes semen and physical strength. _{Dean of trad. medicine}

Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera)- heals m.khel-rkid (kidney disease) and grang-nad (disease caused by "cold" factors: like diarrhea, dysentery OR disease of the intestine characterized by frequent bloody and mucous stools), kidney disease. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Maize/corn (Zea mays)

Ginger (Zingiber officinale)

Zizyphus sativa

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Minerals:

Coral (Corallium japonicum)- treats for liver and nerves diseases. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Pearl (Adontia woodiana)- helps in treating brain diseases. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Mother of pearl (Pteria margartifera)- helps in treating brain diseases. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Iron (ferrum)- helps in curing liver diseases caused by poisoning. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Chinese ink- helps in curing stomach diseases. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Mineral pith (shilajit)- used for fever, stomach, liver and kidney diseases. _{Khesar Gyalpo Museum}

Calcium carbonate-

Animal products:

Pig's blood: used to cure poison, food poisoning, stomach ulcers, and diseases caused by bad-kan/phlegm combined with the blood. _{Dean of trad. medicine}

Yak meat: it is unctuous, cures cold diseases, and is considered hot. Not to be taken if you have sinusitis, as it causes sinusitis (related to blood/infections). It aggravates blood/khris-pa or bile/sinusitis diseases. For rlung/bad-kan it's okay. _{Dean of trad. medicine}

Sources:

Phurpa Wangchuck, Samten Ugyen, "High Altitude Medicinal Plants of Bhutan: An Illustrated Guide for Practical Use." 2009. Pharmaceutical and Research Unit, Institute of Traditional Medicine Services, Ministry of Health, Thimphu, Bhutan.

Drg Tendrel Wangdi= Dean of Traditional Medicine

Drg. Sangay

Tsering Dorjee Dekhang= A handbook of Tibetan Medicinal Plants by Dr Tsering Dorjee Dekhang

Drg Jamyang

Medicinal Flora of Bhutan, Ministry of Health & Education

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Plants Missing Scientific Name/Important Information:

Gypsy sérpo, Scientific Name, English Name*- flower, fruit, and leaves. General benefit of "Gypsy" flowers is wounds inside the lips and mouth, teeth problems, tooth cavity, gum problems, liver problems, all caused by heat. Similar to use of other "gypsy". _{Drg. Sangay}

^Gypsy chenmo = Salvia prattli _{Drg. Sangay}

Nyalo, Yallo mempa*- lower quality than other species _{Drg Jamyang} , same type as Nyalo chok. Generally 3,000 m-- above this it's the higher quality species Nyalo chok. _{Drg. Sangay}

Druel-pak, Dil-pak, Scientific Name, English Name (lichen)*- cures wounds/skin diseases caused by evil spirits. Cures ringworm, fungal infections of the skin, and rough skin on the back of the neck. _{Drg. Sangay}

Jang-tser-luma-tawa, Scientific Name*-indication is similar to that for Jang-tser karpo and Jang-tser nakpo. General jang-tser scientific name: Morina kokonorica; fruit is used for vomiting, high blood pressure, and giddiness. _{Drg. Sangay}

Pa-wung googoo, English Name (unknown: given is Lasiophera gemmatum, possibly Lycoperdon gemmatum aka Lycoperdom perlatum)*- A mushroom, aboveground part used. Used for wound problems, blood letting, and general skin diseases (pimples, etc.) _{Drg. Tendrel Wangdi}